The spots on a leopard, the stripes on a zebra, and the mask on a raccoon are all types of coloration in mammal fur, referred to as pelage. Scientists have struggled for a long time to understand how these colorations evolved. A team of researchers recently discovered how to reconstruct the colors of ancient mammal fur using cell structures that contain the chemical pigment melanin, known as melanosomes. They hope to use this understanding of ancient mammal pelage to determine how they lived and what their environments were like.

To decipher the color of ancient mammal fur, the researchers constructed a statistical computer model to predict their fur colors based on the shape of their melanosomes. First, they needed to understand how the shapes of melanosomes control fur color in modern mammals. To measure the length and width of the modern melanosomes, the scientists used a beam of electrons like a flashlight to map them in great detail, a technique called scanning electron microscopy.

They measured the length and width of 2,615 melanosomes from the fur of 116 different living mammal species, including a Red Panda, a German Shepard, and one or more species of most types in the mammalian classification. Then they recorded the wavelengths of light reflected off each melanosome using a microspectrophotometer. These wavelengths represented the exact color of hair from each melanosome they measured. This means they now had a quantitative measurement of the color of each hair to compare with its corresponding melanosome length and width.

When they examined their data, the researchers found that spherical melanosomes produced brighter fur colors, like reds and oranges, while elongated melanosomes produced darker fur colors, like browns and grays. The researchers plotted the microspectrophotometric measurements for each melanosome as a graph showing how much light it absorbed across each possible wavelength, creating reflectance curves. Based on these data, the researchers used computer software to create a statistical model that could predict reflectance curves, and therefore color, from melanosome shape alone.

Once the researchers created a model, they needed to find fossilized mammal melanosomes to predict their fur color. Mammal fossils are rare, and pieces of cells are only preserved in the most immaculate fossil deposits. In fact, these researchers only found 6 fossils of this caliber, from Mesozoic rocks deposited around 250 million years ago, soon after mammals evolved. 

The fossils came from 2 world-renowned deposits in Northeastern China, the Yanliao and Jehol biotas. They selected 5 previously studied fossils from these locations, including 1 specimen of Megaconus mammaliaformis, 1 specimen of Vilevolodon diplomylos, 2 specimens from the group Docodonta, and 1 specimen from the group Eutheria. All of these animals were small, rodent-like mammals. The researchers also discovered a new species of tree-dwelling mammal, Arboroharamiya fuscus.

The scientists used scanning electron microscopy to measure a total of 2,159 fossilized melanosomes to refine their color predictions. The fossilized melanosomes were all slightly elongated spheres and had far fewer differences in shape than in modern mammals. The researchers used their model to predict reflectance curves based on the shapes of the fossil melanosomes to determine the ancient mammals’ colors. They found that all the extinct mammals they examined likely had dark brown fur without any color patterns.

Based on these findings, the researchers suggested that most, if not all, early mammals were nocturnal, like many dark-colored mammals today. They suggested that this nocturnal lifestyle probably helped them survive the meteorite impact that wiped out the dinosaurs 100 million years later. While dinosaurs were unable to survive in the post-impact wasteland, these smaller, dark-colored mammals were more resilient and thrived in the aftermath. As mammals filled the ecological roles left by the dinosaurs, they evolved new color patterns, some based solely on camouflage, and others on new factors, like sexual selection and visual communication.

The researchers concluded that their model can predict fossilized mammal colors and help determine how these ancient animals lived. Notably, their data suggest that mammals likely stayed small and nocturnal throughout the Mesozoic until the dinosaurs were gone. Future researchers could use similar methods to uncover exactly how mammals evolved the colors we see today. For example, studying mammals closer to the impact event could reveal if it took a long time to develop diverse fur patterns, or if they began before the dinosaurs’ demise. Ultimately, similar studies could help determine whether the extinction of dinosaurs was necessary for the rise of mammals.

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Some 66 million years ago, an asteroid impact wiped out three-quarters of all plant and animal species on Earth, most notably taking down the dinosaurs. But exactly how that impact caused those extinctions has been the subject of fierce debate. According to a new paper published in the Journal of Geophysical Research: Biogeosciences, the impact would have produced an immense cloud of dust that superheated the upper atmosphere, charbroiling living organisms unable to take shelter and igniting widespread wildfires.

As previously reported, the most widely accepted explanation for what triggered that catastrophic mass extinction is known as the “Alvarez hypothesis,” after the late physicist Luis Alvarez and his geologist son, Walter. In 1980, they proposed that the extinction event may have been caused by a massive asteroid or comet hitting the Earth. They based this conclusion on their analysis of sedimentary layers at the Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary(the K-Pg boundary, formerly known as the K-T boundary) found all over the world, which included unusually high concentrations of iridium—a metal more commonly found in asteroids than on Earth. (That same year, Dutch geophysicist Jan Smit independently arrived at a similar conclusion.)

Since then, scientists have identified a likely impact site: a large crater in Chicxulub, Mexico, in the Yucatan Peninsula, first discovered by geophysicists in the late 1970s. The impactor that created it was sufficiently large (between 11 and 81 kilometers, or 7 to 50 miles) to melt, shock, and eject granite from deep inside the Earth, probably causing a megatsunami and ejecting vaporized rock and sulfates into the atmosphere. It has been estimated that the impact would have released energy over a billion times higher than the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945.

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If you’ve ever swum in the ocean and been touched by seaweed, there’s a good chance it was Sargassum! This free-floating seaweed can have population explosions in coastal waters, degrading water quality, ecosystems, fisheries, and tourism. However, despite its drawbacks, scientists think that Sargassum could be useful for extracting valuable metals, known as rare earth elements (REEs). 

REEs are classified by their average masses and atomic weights. Light REEs include cerium, praseodymium, and neodymium, middle REEs include gadolinium, terbium, and dysprosium, and heavy REEs include erbium, thulium, and ytterbium. These metals are used in magnets, electronic motors, wind turbines, spacecraft, and more. Our current methods of extracting REEs, open-pit mining and chemical processing, are invasive, causing habitat loss and producing toxic waste. Additionally, REEs are difficult to import due to restricted access worldwide. But what if these metals could be extracted using natural methods? 

Scientists from Woods Hole and UCLA recently tested whether Sargassum could accumulate REEs, creating a sustainable solution to these problems. They harvested Sargassum at Waterfront Park in Woods Hole, rinsed the wet samples, and stored them in sterilized, filtered seawater, which they aerated with 12-hour cycles of light and dark to keep the Sargassum alive. They dried another set of samples in the sun under controlled outdoor conditions, stored them in sealed containers, and later rehydrated them in seawater for 3 hours before the experiments.

For each experiment, they added 5 grams (about 0.2 ounces) of Sargassum to solutions containing a mixture of 9 REEs – cerium, praseodymium, neodymium, gadolinium, terbium, dysprosium, erbium, thulium, and ytterbium – in concentrations totalling 0.1 micromolar (μM) REEs, 11μM REEs, 100 to 110μM REEs, and 575 to 600μM REEs. They performed each experiment 4 times: twice with fresh seaweed and twice with rehydrated seaweed. 

The researchers removed 1 gram (about 0.04 ounces) of seaweed from each solution after 1, 3, and 7 days, and dissolved it in acid to release the REEs it had absorbed. They analyzed the concentrations of REEs in each seaweed sample and the leftover solutions using 2 different plasma-based methods. They used these REE concentrations to calculate the ratio of REEs in the Sargassum versus in the solution, known as the bioconcentration factor, to determine how effectively the seaweed absorbed REEs. 

They found that after 7 days at lower REE concentrations (0.1μM), the fresh seaweed had bioconcentration factors of over 1,000. At higher REE concentrations (11μM), their bioconcentration factors ranged from about 400 to 700. However, these levels of REEs were eventually toxic to the fresh Sargassum, so they died after 2 weeks. In addition, the higher REE concentrations of 100 to 600μM were immediately toxic to the fresh Sargassum, which died within 1 day in solution. 

The researchers determined that once the seaweed died, it could no longer actively take up REEs into its tissues but could only accumulate them on its surface or adsorb them. Adsorption can be thought of as a powdered donut – when the surface is covered with powdered sugar, no more powder fits on the donut. Similarly, there was a limit to how many REEs could stick to the Sargassum. Due to this limit, the fresh seaweed samples had bioconcentration factors below 250 in the highest REE concentrations. In contrast, the rehydrated Sargassum consumed less REEs at lower concentrations, but didn’t experience toxicity and continued to accumulate REEs at higher concentrations.

Finally, the team compared Sargassum to a common industrial method of accumulating REEs, known as activated carbon. REEs bond easily to activated carbon because of its abundant surface area and high porosity. Both materials accumulated a similar amount of REEs in solutions of 0.1μM REEs. However, at 575 to 600μM REEs, Sargassum accumulated about twice as many REEs as activated carbon, especially the heavier REEs. 

​The researchers concluded that Sargassum is a natural hyper-accumulator, meaning it successfully concentrates REEs. However, they recommended that future researchers test whether Sargassum performs the same in the natural environment as it does in the lab. If so, Sargassum could be used to accumulate REEs from wastewater, like mine drainage, or other water sources with higher concentrations of REEs. Regardless, they suggested that using Sargassum to obtain REEs could simultaneously expand global access to these metals and mitigate toxic blooms.

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Humans have been around for only about 0.01% of Earth’s history, yet we’ve altered natural landscapes and processes that have remained stable for millions of years. A team of researchers from the University of Glasgow recently studied a formerly sandy beach in the UK that highlights how fast these changes can occur.

Industrial steel and iron furnaces operated extensively in the UK from 1856 until the 1980s. During these decades, workers dumped roughly 335 million cubic meters (90 billion gallons) of molten furnace waste, called slag, across the country. Of that, roughly 27 million cubic meters (6 million gallons) now sits on the coast of Derwent Howe in a massive 30-meter (100-foot), solidified cliff. 

The researchers analyzed this region to understand how man-made, or anthropogenic, materials influence the way rocks form. Rocks naturally form and change into different types of rocks over million-year timescales, through a continuous process called the rock cycle. When the team uncovered a soda can tab manufactured in 1989 within the hardened grains, or clasts, of slag, they concluded that the beach had solidified within the last 35 years. Based on this discovery, they proposed a new term for rocks formed from anthropogenic sediments: the anthropoclastic rock cycle. 

The team collected 1,300 grains of sediment from 13 sites in the study area and found that 83% were slag. Natural beach sediments, like quartz sand, comprised only about 17% of the grains. As wind and waves broke down the cliff, slag clasts fell off and became rounded by friction as tides transported them from the cliff to the beach. 

At the boundary where the slag touched the beach, the researchers also saw evidence that the slag had seeped into the underlying wet sediment. The rocks there resembled a type of rock called peperite, which forms when lava flows over wet, loose sediments.  They concluded that this peperite-like rock formed as the molten slag flowed over the still sandy beach. Slag is much thicker than wet sand, so the resulting rock looked like blobs of slag encased in sandy rock. 

The researchers then visually observed how the slag grains were arranged in the solidified rock to reconstruct the tidewater speeds at different points in the coast’s history. The different ways sediments are arranged within a rock are called sedimentary features, and they reflect the processes that formed the rock. For example, as water flows over sand, it forms small, dune-like ripples. When the sand beds harden into rock, the ripples are preserved as features known as trough cross-bedding. 

Faster water erases any ripple formations and instead forms horizontal layers in the sediment, known as planar lamination. The researchers observed both trough cross-bedding and planar laminations preserved in the slag beach rocks. These sedimentary features indicate that the beach at Derwent Howe turned from loose sediment into rock in a generation. 

To investigate why this beach rapidly solidified, the researchers scanned the surfaces of the beach rock with electron beams and X-rays using a scanning electron microscope, or SEM, equipped with an energy dispersive X-ray, or EDX. Every chemical element emits a unique set of X-rays with different wavelengths when hit with EDX, so the researchers could compare the X-rays from their samples to databases of known mineral X-ray signatures. They identified the primary binding agents as calcium- and iron-rich minerals like calcite, goethite, and brucite. These minerals are called cements because they bind grains of sediment together. 

The researchers expected the slag to produce these cement compositions, since extracting metal ores from rock enriches the resultant slag in calcium, magnesium, manganese, and iron, which readily dissolve in water. When water flowing between closely packed slag grains can no longer hold additional dissolved elements, those elements precipitate as solid mineral cements. Since cements only form when the water has very high concentrations of dissolved elements, the introduction of massive amounts of slag caused the cement to form faster than it would in waters with lower concentrations of elements.

The researchers suspected that the anthropoclastic rock cycle they observed at Derwent Howe is not uncommon. Since slag contains all the elements necessary to form rocks when in contact with seawater and air, slag deposits all over the world could be rapidly influencing their local environments. With this in mind, the team suggested that future researchers update geological models to account for human contributions to the natural rock cycle. 

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One of the central features of plate tectonics is the formation of new crust at mid-ocean ridges. Part of the spreading process that drives continents apart, it was arguably the discovery of these ridges that drove widespread acceptance of plate tectonics as a theory. Thanks to decades of exploration, we now have a good picture of what the crust that forms at the site of spreading looks like. But we still have an incomplete idea of how its features are actually produced.

In other words, we have a good idea of the outcome of the process, but not a detailed picture of the process itself.

That is starting to change. In 2024, a team of French scientists was able to remotely monitor a major event on the border between the Australian and Antarctic plates, only two months after they installed equipment on the ocean floor. Their data shows that most of the spreading occurred in a relatively short time window, and some key events happened without any obvious seismic activity.

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More than two decades have passed since geologists first identified an unusual circular structure buried beneath the North Sea, and now scientists say new evidence could finally solve the mystery.

New research has confirmed that the feature, known as the Silverpit Crater, was likely formed by an asteroid impact as much as 46 million years ago. The discovery ends years of speculation about the mysterious feature’s origins, much of which debated whether the circular structure had been caused by volcanic activity or shifting underground salt deposits.

The research was led by researchers at Heriot-Watt University in Edinburgh and published in Nature Communications.

Combining high-resolution seismic imaging, microscopic analysis of rock samples, and computer simulations, the team behind the new study says their assessment offers the strongest evidence yet that Silverpit represents one of Earth’s relatively rare ancient impact features that have survived throughout time.

The Silverpit Enigma

The three-kilometer feature, which lies approximately 700 meters (2,300 feet) beneath the floor of the southern North Sea, and close to 80 miles off the Yorkshire coast, has long perplexed geologists. Several larger concentric ringlike structures encircle the primary feature, comprising about 12 miles, and since its discovery in 2002, geologists have remained divided over what might have caused it.

Some argued that the weird feature possesses the unmistakable hallmarks of a hypervelocity impact; others maintained that more conventional geological explanations could better account for the circular structure.

Now, after nearly a quarter of a century of debate, the new research appears to finally put the debate over this North Sea enigma to rest.

New Data Sheds Light on the Mystery

“New seismic imaging has given us an unprecedented look at the crater,” said lead author Dr. Uisdean Nicholson, a seismologist with Heriot-Watt University. Of even greater intrigue, the researchers identified microscopic “shocked” quartz and feldspar crystals recovered from an oil exploration well at the same depth as the crater floor.

“We were exceptionally lucky to find these,” according to Nicholson, who called the team’s work “a real ‘needle-in-a-haystack’ effort.”

“These prove the impact crater hypothesis beyond doubt, because they have a fabric that can only be created by extreme shock pressures,” Nicholson said, making them among the strongest lines of evidence available to researchers for confirming ancient impact sites.

Reconstructing an Ancient Impact

By reconstructing the ancient impact event that shaped the Silverpit feature, the team now believes that an asteroid roughly 160 meters wide struck the North Sea at a low angle after approaching from the west. The resulting collision produced the main crater, while launching massive volumes of stone and seawater to levels of up to 1.5 kilometers—the resulting tsunami would have exceeded 100 meters in height.

This ancient impact is still dwarfed when compared to the likes of Mexico’s Chicxulub Crater, which was created by an asteroid that struck our planet 66 million years ago, now widely believed to be responsible for the extinction of the dinosaurs. While smaller by comparison, the Silverpit impact would still have unleashed enormous destructive energy across the surrounding region.

The team’s work also adds to the accumulation of impact features known to scientists, which are relatively rare, despite thousands of asteroids reaching the surface of our world over the last several billion years. However, over such long periods, other geological processes such as erosion, plate tectonics, and volcanic activity have erased most of the remaining evidence of these collisions.

Presently, there are only around 200 impact craters that are known to exist on land, and another few dozen that have been detected beneath Earth’s oceans.

Altogether, while the mystery of Silverpit has now been solved, the new research does more than merely settle a debate: it allows seismologists a deeper look at how asteroid impacts reshape planetary surfaces.

Such knowledge, while improving scientists’ understanding of Earth’s past, could also help provide potentially crucial data for future planetary defense efforts by helping scientists refine models of future impact hazards.

The team’s recent study, “Multiple lines of evidence for a hypervelocity impact origin for the Silverpit Crater,” appeared in Nature Communications.

Micah Hanks is the Editor-in-Chief and Co-Founder of The Debrief. A longtime reporter on science, defense, and technology with a focus on space and astronomy, he can be reached at micah@thedebrief.org. Follow him on X @MicahHanks, and at micahhanks.com.

Nearly 170 billion tons of ice melt off the Greenland Ice Sheet every year, but scientists don’t fully understand the process by which this melting occurs. Researchers in the past suggested that liquid water forms at the glacier’s surface, where warm air and sunlight melt the ice. This meltwater travels down through cracks in the glacier and along the bedrock beneath it and flows out to sea. 

However, some scientists view this model as too simple because it assumes water only flows downward and ignores how temperature affects water movement. They argue that an oversimplified melting model is unreliable for predicting how future ice sheets will behave.

One group of researchers tested this by investigating how water movement across Greenland is controlled by lakes beneath the ice sheet, called subglacial lakes. They monitored a newly discovered subglacial lake using high-resolution satellite images taken from 2012 to 2019 and 3D surface maps generated from the images. They focused on ice sheet changes from July 22 to August 1, 2014, during a suspected subglacial lake drainage event. A drainage event is like a water balloon that’s too full, bursting from excess pressure. 

They examined images of the Greenland ice sheet taken from Landsat-8, 3D surface maps from the Polar Geospatial Center, and data from ICESat and ICESat-2 taken in the summer of 2014. Based on these data, the researchers identified a 2-square-kilometer (0.8-square-mile) region of ice rising 10 to 15 meters (about 30 to 50 feet), forming a dome on the ice sheet’s surface. They suggested that this dome formed when a large, meltwater-fed lake developed on the bedrock beneath the ice sheet, pushing the ice upward. 

They also saw that on July 22, 2014, the dome began to collapse. Over the next 10 days, it dropped by 85 meters (about 280 feet), forming a basin. Using the dome’s dimensions, the researchers estimated that 90 million cubic meters, or about 3 billion cubic feet, of water drained from the lake at an average rate of 100 cubic meters, or about 3500 cubic feet, per second over the 10 days. This is roughly equivalent to 36,000 Olympic swimming pools draining at a rate of 1 pool every 25 seconds! 

The researchers also found that during the collapse, 40-meter-high (130-foot) ice blocks were uprooted about 1 kilometer (0.6 mile) downstream from the basin, followed by 6 square kilometers (about 2 square miles) of smooth ice. The researchers hypothesized that these features formed when water burst through the ice, flowed along its surface, and then reentered the ice sheet.

Next, they used data from Landsat 5, Landsat 9, the National Snow and Ice Data Center, and the U.S. Geological Survey to demonstrate that the drainage event also affected the surrounding environment. When the water reentered the ice sheet, it flowed beneath the Harding Glacier downstream. This influx of fast-moving water reduced pressure at the glacier’s base, slowing its movement. Simultaneously, the increased drainage beneath the Harding Glacier caused 500 to 600 meters (about 1,600 to 2,000 feet) of ice to break off its end. 

In response to these changes, the researchers hypothesized that subglacial waters rose to the surface rather than sinking to the bedrock because the ice sheet was frozen to it. To test this, they simulated temperatures at the base of the ice sheet using computer-generated thermal models. They input a range of likely bedrock temperatures and ice thicknesses to simulate possible conditions under the ice sheet. They found that all the simulations predicted the glacier’s base would remain below -5°C (23°F). At such low temperatures, the ice would be frozen to the bedrock before subglacial water could drain out. Since water couldn’t flow under the glacier, it was forced to travel upward. 

The researchers used these findings to develop a new conceptual model of how glacial meltwater moves. First, surface ice melts and flows into a subglacial lake. As meltwater accumulates, pressure builds at the base of the ice sheet, forming a dome on the surface. A drainage event causes the dome to collapse. As water moves downward through the glacier, it is blocked from reaching the base because the ice is frozen to the bedrock. The water then moves upward, bursts through the surface, travels across it, and eventually reenters the glacier before draining to the ocean.

The team concluded that water movement above, through, and below glaciers is interconnected. Destructive upward flow of meltwater, followed by downward flow beneath glaciers, can weaken ice sheet structure and alter downstream glacier dynamics. Their work highlights the need for more scientists to consider the processes driving glacial ice loss.

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Many volcano scientists spend their time monitoring volcanoes to predict if, or when, they’ll next erupt. The challenge for these scientists is to forecast the exact probability of an eruption and the moment it will occur. 

To address this problem, a team of researchers developed an early-detection system to determine when to issue alerts about volcanic eruptions. Their motivation was that previous alert systems weren’t accurate enough because they couldn’t detect underground volcanic processes that occur right before an eruption. 

From 2014 to 2023, the researchers conducted a series of tests to accurately detect temporary, low-frequency vibrations using an instrument called a seismometer. The researchers focused on these transient signals because they come from earthquakes and other ground phenomena, which scientists often rely on to predict volcanic eruptions. These phenomena include ground tilting caused by fracturing from the movement of magma and volcanic gases. The scientists named these signals the “Jerk” signals because they occur due to sudden movements. 

The team set up their experiment at Piton de la Fournaise, a volcano at La Réunion Island off the east coast of Madagascar. They discovered the Jerk signals by detecting and analyzing mysterious short-term signals from existing and experimental seismic data. During real-time experiments, they detected signals 8 kilometers (about 5 miles) from the volcano at the Rivière de l’Est seismic station. These signals resulted from changes in ground elevation as magma moved, and they preceded eruptions by minutes and sometimes hours. 

The researchers measured the Jerk signals in units of newton-meters per second, which conveys how fast physical changes occurred in or around the volcano. In addition to real-time experiments, the team checked the Jerk signals’ accuracy by analyzing the station’s past data to determine when these signals would have occurred before an eruption.

To avoid false alarms during their experiments, the researchers needed to distinguish between the signal amplitudes of ocean tides and the transient Jerk signals. So, they used computational software to predict the signals from ocean tides. This was necessary because the instruments that record ground phenomena are also sensitive to tidal movements.  

The Jerk system sent its first automatic alarm in June 2014, 1 hour before the first volcanic tremor, signalling that magma was at the Earth’s surface. The team recorded the last signal in their study on July 2, 2023, 40 minutes before the eruption, at a slow 1.5 newton-meters per second. From 2014 to 2023, other Jerk detections occurred between a few minutes and up to 8 hours before an eruption.

To further assess the strength of the Jerk signals, the team examined previous eruption records at Piton de la Fournaise. They found that for the 24 eruptions between 1998 and 2010, a Jerk alarm would have gone off 83% of the time. Of the 48 eruptions that occurred between 1998 and 2023, including the eruptions during their real-time tests, about 42 Jerk alarms would have occurred. However, they found that the Jerk signals were more accurate during their real-time analysis than they would have been for the eruptions 20 years earlier. 

Although the researchers successfully detected pre-eruption signals, they noted that the Jerk alarms occasionally arrived too late due to the data processing time, which takes at least 10 to 15 minutes. They reported 2 late alarms: one on June 11, 2019, and the other on February 10, 2020. Therefore, after 10 years of tracking the Jerk signals, the team evaluated their success rates at 22 successful alarms out of 24 eruptions, for a 92% positive rate. 

Before using the Jerk signals, many volcanologists struggled to predict the exact moment a volcano erupts. The team concluded that, in addition to the usual methods for detecting pre-eruption earthquakes, observatory scientists could now use Jerk signals to confidently notify authorities in advance of volcanic eruptions, so they can alert people living near volcanoes worldwide. 

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