Tyrannosaurus Rex was likely one of the Cretaceous period’s most fearsome predators, and a new discovery is revealing how the long-extinct dinosaur may have moved.

In a recent paper published in the Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, an international team of researchers reveals the first-ever adult T. rex trackway, discovered in North Dakota.

While fiction media shows dinosaurs in motion, paleontologists still have many questions about how species actually moved. The new discovery goes a long way toward answering these questions with the first-ever record of a real T. rex gait.

Finding a T. Rex Track

The work was a collaboration between the Denver Museum of Nature & Science and England’s Liverpool John Moores University, centered on a literally groundbreaking set of footprints.

The discovery was made in the Hell Creek Formation, one of the world’s most intensely studied Cretaceous and Paleocene rock formations, which continues to reveal new secrets about Earth’s remote past. Although the formation covers thousands of square miles, this particular discovery was made on U.S. Forest Service land outside Marmarth, North Dakota.

Intriguingly, a local teacher at Northglenn High School made the discovery in a fortuitous example of citizen science. His discovery earned him an author position on the resulting paper.

“As a teacher, I’m always telling my students that science starts with curiosity, passion, and careful observation. I never imagined that could lead me to a discovery like this,” said co-author Kent M. Hups.

High Tech Analysis

“The technology we’re able to apply in the digital age means my colleagues could scan the tracks in the field and then send the 3D information over to me to visualize on my computer and in VR, enabling me to take as close a look as they did in person,” said lead author Peter Falkingham, a professor of palaeobiology at Liverpool John Moores University and a dinosaur track expert.

Using high-resolution 3D surface scanning, the team measured each footprint along the 66.5-million-year-old trackway. Using these data, they constructed digital and physical 3D models of the T. rex tracks. The footprints are about three feet long, and the trackway extends for roughly 23 feet. Their size and distinctive narrow toe shape led to the Tyrannosaurus identification, further supported by the known recovery of T. rex fossils in the area.

Tyrannosaurus Movement

This isn’t the first time paleontologists have seen a track believed to have been made by a T. rex, but it is the first time such tracks have been found in a sequence. Locating a series like this provides scientists with crucial new evidence about how the dinosaur moved while it was alive.

“Bones tell us an enormous amount about these animals, but footprints capture a moment of behavior. With a trackway, we can actually follow an animal as it moved across the landscape. That is incredibly rare for T. rex,” said co-author Tyler Lyson, senior curator of vertebrate paleontology at the Denver Museum of Nature & Science.

The stride between the footprints was about 13 feet, with a symmetrical sequence of two left and two right tracks. Due to weathering, it is challenging to be certain, but the team estimates that the dinosaur was moving at 3.5 to 4.5 miles per hour—roughly what would be a brisk walking pace for a human.

The work will continue this fall, when three of the prints will be physically removed from the location and transported by helicopter to the Denver Museum of Nature & Science. The institution plans to make the most of the opportunity, providing updates over the winter as researchers conduct an in-person analysis of the tracks.

The paper, “A Large Tridactyl Trackway from the Upper Cretaceous Hell Creek Formation of North Dakota, Likely Attributable to an Adult Tyrannosaurus Rex,” appeared in the Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology on September 8, 2026.

Ryan Whalen covers science and technology for The Debrief. He holds an MA in History and a Master of Library and Information Science with a certificate in Data Science. He can be contacted at ryan@thedebrief.org, and follow him on Twitter @mdntwvlf.

A Curtin University-led research team has successfully identified the mysterious origin of several 4,000-year-old 25-ton stones, which ancient architects used to construct Britain’s iconic Devil’s Arrows, as Birmingham Rocks in North Yorkshire, over 11 miles (18 kilometers) from the monument’s location.

The researcher behind the first-ever geological source identification of the ancient stone monument said the quarry’s distance and the work required to move such massive stones suggest the ancient architects intentionally selected the material used to construct Devil’s Arrows.

Unraveling the Mysterious Origin of the 4,000-Year-Old Devil’s Arrows

Announcing the discovery, the research team, which included scientists from the University of York, UK, noted that the famous stone pillars stand up to seven meters (22 feet) tall. The team also said the site is unusual because such alignments are rare in lowland settings. Still, researchers have struggled to locate the mysterious origin of the massive stone pillars used to create the over 4,000-year-old monument.

The Curtin-led team noted that previous studies determined that the stones used in Devil’s Arrows were transported to the site during the Late Neolithic or Early Bronze Age. This range means the site could have been constructed as early as 2000 BC.

Lead author Dr Anthony Clarke, from Curtin’s School of Earth and Planetary Sciences, noted the significant challenges with moving the stones over such difficult terrain.

“Each stone weighs more than 25 tonnes, so moving them would have required incredible planning, coordination and engineering skill,” the researcher explained.

Dr. Clarke also highlighted the value this effort suggests these ancient Britons “placed real importance” on the material used in the monument’s construction and the landscape itself.

“It wasn’t just about convenience – the location the stones came from likely held meaning for them,” the researcher explained.

Low Impact Sampling Method Confirms Ancient Stone’s ‘Fingerprints’

To unravel the ancient site’s mysterious origin, the researchers placed tiny pieces of low-adhesion tape on the stones and then removed them. The team said this “low impact” sampling process collected several tiny mineral grains on the tape without measurable damage to the ancient monuments.

According to the statement announcing their solution to the Devil’s Arrows origin mystery, the team performed an analysis of the “fingerprints” of the selected grains. The results matched material from Brimham Rocks.

Critically, the mystery’s solution also addressed the possibility that glacial movement or other natural processes moved the stones over the needed distance. Instead, the team said their results demonstrated that “the stones were intentionally transported by people.”

“Our research shows these stones weren’t simply taken from the nearest available source – they were deliberately chosen from a challenging landscape 18 kilometers away,” Dr Clarke said.

Clarke also said that the results eliminate the nearer site of Plimpton Rocks, which “had previously been identified as the probable source of the stones.”

“Our findings instead point to Brimham Rocks, showing that prehistoric builders transported these enormous stones significantly further than thought,” he explained.

Solving Similar Stone Monument Origin Mysteries

After discovering the mysterious origin of the 4,000-year-old pillars, Dr Clarke said the team will apply its low-impact sampling method to similar stone monument origin mysteries. The team also hopes to conduct future “targeted excavations” at the Devil’s Arrows site and the newly identified source.

Dr. Clarke said that analysis might help explain how these ancient architects moved the massive stone pillars several miles over rugged terrain over 4,000 years ago. The research said the work could also unravel “how these extraordinary monuments were constructed.”

Co-author Dr Jim Leary from the University of York echoed Dr Clarke’s sentiments, while also suggesting that the team’s findings ‘reshaped’ how researchers understand the art of prehistoric monument-building.

“These results show that ancient communities were making deliberate and meaningful choices about where their stones came from,” Dr Leary explained.

The York researcher said their solution to the Devil’s Arrows origin mystery also “highlights the importance of landscape and shared belief systems, as well as the remarkable effort involved in transporting and raising stones of this size.”

The study, “Deliberate Prehistoric Sourcing of the Devil’s Arrows, Britain’s Tallest Stone Row,” was published in the Proceedings of the Royal Society. 

Christopher Plain has spent the last six years as Associate News Editor and Head Science Reporter at The Debrief. Follow and connect with him on X, learn about his novels at plainfiction.com, or email him at christopher@thedebrief.org.

One of the most popular explanations of human behavior has been that somewhere beneath our rational mind lurks an ancient “lizard brain”—a primitive evolutionary holdover responsible for instinct, emotion, fear, and aggression.

There is just one problem. Neuroscientists have long known that the lizard brain story is wrong. Humans did not evolve a sophisticated new brain by simply stacking it on top of an older reptilian one.

But a new study suggests the enduring lizard brain myth may have inadvertently pointed to something more interesting. Mammalian brains do appear to be organized around two broad computational systems—but not an ancient reptilian brain located beneath a newer, more sophisticated one. Instead, the divide appears to reflect two fundamentally different ways of organizing and processing information.

Published in Science Advances, the research combines anatomical measurements from 182 mammalian species with experiments using artificial neural networks. The researchers found a striking evolutionary trade-off between the neocortex and a collection of structures associated with smell, memory, and the limbic system.

Instead of representing “new” and “old” brains, the researchers say these regions may have evolved different wiring styles optimized for solving different kinds of computational problems.

“Rather than an ‘old’ brain and a ‘new’ brain, our results suggest two systems wired for different kinds of computation,” lead author Dr. Nabil Imam, a researcher at the Georgia Institute of Technology, told The Debrief. “The neocortex is wired to preserve spatial relationships—for example, neighboring points in the visual world are analyzed by neighboring parts of the cortex. The limbic system is more diffusely connected and supports holistic associations across different pieces of information.”

“So, the division between the neocortex and limbic system is about how the two systems are wired,” Dr. Imam added.

This distinction offers a very different picture from the famous lizard brain story.

The lizard brain concept grew from the so-called triune brain theory, which portrays the human brain as having evolved in distinct layers. A primitive “lizard brain” handling basic instincts, a mammalian limbic system producing emotion, and, finally, a newer neocortex responsible for higher thought.

The problem is that neuroscience has long since overturned that evolutionary story. Vertebrate brains did not evolve by progressively stacking newer brain regions on top of older, more primitive ones. Instead, vertebrates share essentially the same broad organizational plan, with existing regions changing in size, connectivity, and function over evolutionary time.

The new study suggests, however, that the mammalian brain may be divided very differently—not by evolutionary age, but by how different neural systems are wired to process information.

Across 182 species from 10 taxonomic groups, animals with an unusually large olfactory system tended to have a smaller-than-expected neocortex. Animals with an expanded neocortex tended to show the opposite pattern.

The nine-banded armadillo provides a particularly dramatic example. Armadillos are largely nocturnal and depend heavily on smell while foraging. As researchers note, the armadillo’s olfactory system was approximately 1.5 times larger than expected for its overall brain size. Its hippocampus—a region central to memory and spatial processing—was about twice its expected size.

Its neocortex, meanwhile, was reduced by a factor of 2.8. Primates such as squirrel monkeys sit closer to the other end of the spectrum. They rely heavily on vision and devote a large portion of their expanded neocortex to processing visual information.

At first glance, that could look like evolution trading smell for sight. But the researchers noticed something more intriguing. The hippocampus grew and shrank alongside the olfactory system, even though memory is obviously not another form of smell. Other structures traditionally grouped into the limbic system, including the amygdala and septum, also tended to change together.

That suggested the important difference might not be what these regions process, but how they are wired to process it.

Two Very Different Ways to Build a Brain

Vision offers a relatively straightforward example. Neighboring points in the visual world are generally processed through neighboring areas of the visual system. Touch operates similarly. Locations beside one another on your body retain spatial relationships as the nervous system processes them. Hearing also uses orderly mappings, including those based on sound frequency.

The result is what neuroscientists call “spatiotopic” organization. In simple terms, the brain preserves relationships between incoming information by arranging it into orderly maps.

However, smell works differently. Odors are represented through combinations of activity distributed across networks rather than being laid out in the same neat spatial fashion.

The researchers suspected that this difference might help explain the anatomical trade-off they had identified across mammals. To test the idea, they turned to artificial neural networks trained to handle vision, touch, hearing, and smell.

They then mapped the networks’ internal models onto artificial two-dimensional surfaces resembling sheets of cortex.

Results showed that networks optimized for vision, touch, and hearing produced smooth, highly ordered maps. On a scale in which 1 represented strong spatial order, the visual network scored 0.90, touch scored 0.86, and hearing scored 0.89.

Yet, the smell network scored just 0.11. Rather than producing a smooth map, information was scattered across a fractured, distributed representation. The researchers even found that imposing localized connectivity on the olfactory model harmed its ability to perform its task.

Researchers then examined memory. Using an artificial network designed to reproduce some relational computations associated with the hippocampus and entorhinal cortex, researchers again saw a fractured, distributed representation resembling the olfactory system rather than vision, hearing or touch.

For Dr. Imam, one of the most surprising results was that artificial networks arrived at an organization resembling real brains despite learning in profoundly different ways.

“Artificial networks are trained by an algorithm that propagates errors through the network, whereas brains are shaped by evolution and through localized changes in synapses,” Imam explained. “The fact that both nevertheless arrive at similar organization suggests that the structure of the information itself—whether visual, auditory, tactile, or olfactory—determines what kind of wiring works best.”

No “Lizard Brain,” But Evolution May Be Trading One Kind of Brainpower for Another

Researchers next wanted to know whether competition between these two wiring styles could reproduce the anatomical patterns seen across real mammals.

They created an evolutionary simulation containing five artificial networks. Vision, hearing, and touch occupied one computational domain based on localized, spatial organization. Smell and hippocampal memory occupied another based on distributed connectivity.

Then an evolutionary algorithm redistributed computational resources between them.

When selection favored vision, resources moved toward the spatially organized networks. When selection favored smell, the distributed networks expanded.

But something interesting occurred to the simulated hippocampal network. Even though researchers weren’t directly selecting for memory, the hippocampal network grew along with the olfactory network because both shared the same broad computational architecture. As resources shifted toward the other system, both contracted.

That closely resembled the pattern found across real mammalian brains.

“It suggests that evolution may not be selecting individual brain regions one at a time, but rather the functions produced by whole patterns of wiring,” Dr. Imam explained. “Because regions that share similar wiring tend to grow or shrink together, selection for one kind of function comes at the expense of another, given that the system must operate with limited energy and space.”

That does not mean an animal with a larger neocortex is simply more intelligent than one with a larger limbic system. Nor does the distributed system represent a primitive emotional brain fighting against a rational one.

Instead, the two architectures appear suited to different computational problems. Evolution may have repeatedly adjusted how much neural real estate mammals devote to each.

Nevertheless, researchers caution that their models are intentionally simplified. Anatomical measurements came from several datasets; some taxonomic groups are better represented than others, and artificial neural networks are not replicas of biological brains.

The evolutionary model is intended to demonstrate that a relatively simple developmental mechanism could produce the observed trade-off, not to reconstruct exactly how mammalian brains evolved.

Still, the research raises another interesting possibility extending beyond the demise of the “lizard brain.” Our brains may arrive in the world with considerably more computational structure already built in than the familiar idea of a blank slate implies.

“The brain may be much less of a blank slate than we often imagine,” Dr. Imam told The Debrief. “Evolution and development build useful assumptions into its wiring before experience-driven learning.”

It is also another example of something scientists are increasingly encountering across very different areas of biology: evolution can produce remarkably sophisticated structures and systems that human engineers are just starting to understand, much less reproduce.

In a recent study covered by The Debrief, researchers discovered that cable bacteria construct microscopic electrical pathways from nickel-rich nanoribbons arranged remarkably like braided electrical wires. The naturally grown structures may achieve extraordinary conductivity while remaining flexible, properties that researchers are now interested in replicating for bio-based electronics.

The mammalian brain represents an enormously more complicated example, but the underlying lesson may be similar. Evolution does not begin with a blank slate each generation. It can build useful solutions into biological architecture itself, leaving subsequent learning along with adaptation to operate within structures refined over immense spans of evolutionary time.

That could also help explain one of the most striking differences between biological intelligence and today’s artificial intelligence. Modern AI systems can require enormous datasets to acquire abilities that biological brains learn from comparatively limited experience.

“That built-in structure may explain why brains can learn efficiently from relatively little experience, whereas most artificial networks require enormous datasets to learn useful functions,” Imam said. “The idea has deep roots in philosophy of mind, but only recently have neuroscience and computer science begun to provide concrete demonstrations of how such built-in structure can aid function.”

The recent study, “Dual computational systems in the development and evolution of mammalian brains,” appeared in Science Advances.

Tim McMillan is a retired law enforcement executive, investigative reporter and co-founder of The Debrief. His writing typically focuses on defense, national security, the Intelligence Community and topics related to psychology. You can follow Tim on Twitter: @LtTimMcMillan.  Tim can be reached by email: tim@thedebrief.org or through encrypted email: LtTimMcMillan@protonmail.com 

Chinese scientists at the Beijing Institute of Technology have run satellite proximity simulations to extend potentially hostile observation of U.S. space assets in Geostationary Earth Orbit (GEO), seemingly inching both countries closer to a potential war in space.

Although the new simulations focus on orbital adjustments to extend observation times and increase proximity to U.S. satellites, including critical missile warning and other space defense-oriented systems, Chinese scientists also plan to integrate reinforcement learning methods into future space assets to give satellites even more independence from human operators.

Study Includes Accusations of Cold War in Space Activities

In the 20th century, the concept of war in space remained mostly in the realm of science fiction, as depicted in popular films like Star Wars. Today, advances in space access, orbital maneuvering technologies, and weapons systems have made the possibility of a future conflict in space a very real security concern, and several nations engage in espionage using reconnaissance spacecraft to obtain information on valuable defense targets in Earth’s orbit.

According to the authors of the new study, “acquiring multi-aspect payload information of non-cooperative targets to infer their functions and mission statuses is of great significance for space security assessment.”

The study authors highlight a series of relative motion configurations that modern spy satellites employ, including fly-around, hovering, and drifting flight. They also point to real-world “adversarial” U.S missions they suggest were designed to gather intelligence on their GEO defense assets.

“Since 2014, the US GSSAP (United States Geosynchronous Space Situational Awareness Program) satellite has carried out hundreds of maneuvers and has conducted close observation operations on dozens of normally working satellites near GEO orbit,” the Beijing University of Technology scientists write.

The study authors also include a specific July 2021 accusation, where they charge that “the U.S. satellite ‘USA-271’ deliberately approached the operational ‘Practice 20’ satellite in geostationary orbit and flew in close proximity.”

In an email to The Debrief, a U.S. Space Command Spokesperson did not address the specific incident or the accusations of “dozens” of similar operations, but offered some insight into the agency’s thinking.

“USSPACECOM, working with allies and partners, plans, executes, and integrates military spacepower into multi-domain global operations in order to deter aggression, defend national interests, and when necessary, defeat threats,” the spokesperson told The Debrief, adding that “we have nothing additional to add in response to the article.”

Getting Closer to Adversarial Satellites and Extending Observation Time

In a step toward potential dogfights between satellites, the Chinese scientists looked at several challenges faced by current spy satellites.

For example, they explain, since most spacecraft observation cameras are mounted in a fixed position, “frequent large-angle attitude maneuvers are time-consuming and consume substantial fuel.” The researcher also noted that several different angles and approaches could yield different categories of intelligence data.

However, changing angles and orbital planes requires fuel, an extremely limited resource in GEO. Therefore, the researcher accounting for all the variables required to gather intelligence on adversarial spacecraft as efficiently as possible “has become a key bottleneck in enhancing space situational awareness capabilities.”

To find an optimized solution, the team designed what they called a “waypoint trajectory planning scheme” and a “multi-impulse maneuver strategy” using a common game-theory tool called “minimum integral squared control” theory. Unlike previous research aimed at extending spy satellite observation time and fuel efficiency, the Chinese scientists said their use of sequential coalition game theory “is introduced for the first time into the multi-model combined observation problem.”

Next, the researchers designed a “game tree.” A press release said this approach lets the spacecraft select the “optimal combination of initial motion points and close-range operation models at each stage under minimum fuel constraints, thereby generating an optimal observation strategy sequence.”

Finally, the researchers ran simulations to see whether their approach improved sensor observation times and field of view while reducing fuel use.

Successful Simulations and Future Reinforcement Learning Plans

As hoped, the Beijing University of Technology team said their simulations supported the theories. Specifically, the study authors said the simulations showed that their spacecraft efficiency algorithm “can successfully generate a multi-model combined observation strategy sequence under minimum fuel constraints.”

“The effective observation time increases with larger observation distances and field-of-view angles, and reducing the model configuration size also contributes to improved observation performance,” they explained. The study authors also said that the simulation results “demonstrate that the algorithm can successfully generate the optimal combined observation sequence under minimum fuel constraints.”

When discussing next steps, the Chinese scientists said they will explore optimal initial points to further improve maneuver efficiency. They also plan to explore a “reinforcement learning method,” suggesting future spacecraft could learn and adapt to evolving conditions to further enhance their cold war in space information-gathering capabilities.

Study’s War in Space Implications “Extends Beyond any Single Algorithm”

To understand the potential implications of the Chinese study, including its impacts on a potential future war in space, The Debrief reached out to former U.S. Air Force officer Shelli Brunswick, CEO and Founder, SB Global LLC.

According to the author and futurist, the Chinese team’s research matters not just because it proves China has deployed a “new operational surveillance capability.” Instead, Brunswick said that the work is significant because it “illustrates how sophisticated coordination and optimization could make spacecraft observation more efficient, persistent, and strategically useful.”

The Blue Marble Space Visiting Scholar also told The Debrief that the work “should not be interpreted as demonstrating a complete pursuit-and-evasion capability against a spacecraft that is actively responding,” since the work assumes a stationary target without maneuvering capabilities. Still, Brunswick noted, the Chinese framework “shows how game-theoretic planning could help an observing satellite gather information from multiple angles while managing limited resources.”

When discussing the potential implications for the broader U.S.-China space-security competition, including how such enhanced spacecraft could lead to more activities that could be construed as hostile, the space strategist said this area of research “extends beyond any single algorithm.”

“As rendezvous and proximity operations become more sophisticated, the line between inspection, space situational awareness, intelligence gathering, and potentially threatening behavior becomes increasingly difficult to interpret,” she explained.

When suggesting what potential strategic responses the U.S. and its allies might employ in the emerging cold war in space, Brunswick told The Debrief that they should include “more resilient architectures, improved space-domain awareness, clearer expectations for close approaches, stronger communication mechanisms, and deeper coordination with commercial and international partners.”

“The challenge is not simply detecting another spacecraft—it is understanding capability and intent early enough to respond responsibly and effectively,” Brunswick explained.

The study “Spacecraft Proximity Operation Model-Based Sequential Coalitional Observation Game Strategy Design” was published in Space: Science & Technology. 

Christopher Plain has spent the last six years as Associate News Editor and Head Science Reporter at The Debrief. Follow and connect with him on X, learn about his novels at plainfiction.com, or email him at christopher@thedebrief.org.

For more than a decade, scientists have known that strange bacteria living in aquatic mud can conduct electricity along distances thousands of times longer than a single bacterial cell. Such long-range electrical conduction should be extraordinarily difficult for a living organism, and how they accomplish the feat has remained a biological mystery.

Now, researchers say they have found the wiring. Inside so-called cable bacteria, scientists have discovered an elaborate network of nickel-rich nanoribbons arranged into what amounts to a naturally grown electrical cable.

The structure is unlike the conventional machinery biology normally uses to move electrons and may represent the first known example of a metal-organic framework produced by a living organism.

What surprised lead study author Dr. Filip Meysman, a professor at the University of Antwerp in Belgium, most was not how alien the structure looked, but how familiar it was.

“It had a very familiar feeling: a braided wire consisting of thin individual wires surrounded by a protective shell layer,” Meysman told The Debrief. “This is very similar to the power cords that we use to charge our smartphones, only the cable bacterial version is 20,000 times smaller in size. Evolution came up with this design 600 million years earlier than electrical engineers.”

Meysman’s comparison is not simply rhetorical. Molecular-clock estimates suggest the cable bacteria lineage may have diverged roughly 560 million years ago, although when their unusual electrical capabilities evolved is still unknown.

Published in Nature Communications, the findings could eventually provide researchers with a biological blueprint for creating flexible, biodegradable electronics that organisms effectively manufacture themselves.

Cable bacteria first attracted scientific attention because of their outstanding ability to move electrons over centimeter-scale distances. The multicellular organisms live in sediments where different layers offer different chemical resources. Cells buried deeper can harvest electrons from sulfide, while cells closer to oxygen-rich water dispose of them.

The result is an organism that successfully separates parts of its metabolism across space, with electrical current passing along the filament connecting them.

Scientists eventually identified dozens of parallel fibers running through the bacteria’s outer layers as the likely electrical pathways. Measurements later showed conductivity reaching levels unusual for any biological material and, in some experiments, comparable to materials used in electronic inks. The new study notes previously reported conductivity values reaching up to 500 siemens per centimeter.

But knowing where the current traveled was not the same as knowing how it traveled.

Most biological electron conduction relies on proteins containing metal-bearing cofactors, commonly iron-containing structures such as hemes or iron-sulfur clusters. Electrons typically move between those sites in a sequence of molecular transfers often described as “hopping.”

Previous research showed that cable bacteria did not fit neatly into that model. Their conducting fibers were associated with sulfur-bound nickel rather than the usual iron cofactors. At the same time, theoretical work suggested electron movement was too fast to be explained by conventional non-adiabatic hopping alone.

The mystery deepened in 2024, when some of the same researchers examined cable bacteria at temperatures approaching that of liquid helium and found that their electrical behavior matched an unusually efficient multistep hopping mechanism. But even then, the extraordinary conductivity challenged standard models of electrons simply hopping between isolated molecular sites.

The new structural work may help explain why.

Rather than a series of small, separated metal cofactors, the researchers have now found an extended nickel-organic structure running through the conductive fibers.

Using electron microscopy, X-ray fluorescence, Raman spectroscopy, electron paramagnetic resonance, X-ray absorption spectroscopy, and computer modeling, the team found that each conductive fiber contains roughly 11 extraordinarily thin nanoribbons, about 1.4 nanometers across.

Those ribbons pass through the center of the fiber and are built from repeating nickel bis-dithiolene complexes, which the researchers call NiBiD. Nickel atoms are linked through sulfur-containing organic molecules, creating planar units that appear to stack into an extended, highly ordered electrical pathway.

That arrangement may explain the extraordinary conductivity. Rather than electrons simply jumping between isolated metal centers, the stacked structure creates extensive electronic interaction and delocalization, allowing charge to spread across overlapping molecular networks. In that sense, the bacterial wire begins to resemble an organic electronic material more than a conventional biological electron-transfer chain.

The arrangement also appears mechanically well-suited to the bacteria’s lifestyle.

Cable bacteria move through sediment and can bend sharply while maintaining electrical contact between cells. A single rigid conducting strand could be vulnerable to damage. Multiple intertwined nanoribbons, however, offer something closer to braided copper wire: strength, flexibility, and redundancy at the same time.

The discovery also appears to broaden scientists’ understanding of what biology can manufacture.

Metal-organic frameworks, or MOFs, are structures in which organic molecules link together metal centers into larger networks. Chemists have spent years designing them for uses ranging from gas storage and chemical separation to catalysis and electronics.

Until now, the researchers say, no one had observed a metal-organic framework configuration naturally constructed inside a living organism.

Cable bacteria appear to have arrived at the idea on their own, and this natural version appears to conduct electricity exceptionally well.

Previous electrical conductivity measurements of cable bacteria used the entire cross-section of their conductive fibers. But the new structural work indicates that the current is concentrated within a much smaller network of nanoribbons.

Recalculating conductivity based on the estimated dimensions of those conducting channels, the researchers found that an individual nanoribbon could have a conductivity of roughly 150 to 15,000 siemens per centimeter.

That range, the researchers say, ranks among the highest reported for any metal-organic structure. The upper figure remains an estimate, however, instead of a direct measurement of a single nanoribbon.

“We need to be able to isolate the individual nanoribbons from the cable bacteria and connect them electrically with electrodes,” Dr. Meysman explained. “This would provide the direct proof of the high conductivity. We are currently working on such nanoscale electrical measurements.”

Doing so would let researchers determine whether the extraordinary conductivity predicted for an individual nanoribbon holds up experimentally.

If it does, the technological implications could extend well beyond understanding an unusual microbe.

Researchers have long been interested in bio-based electronics because living systems can manufacture sophisticated materials through self-assembly while operating under relatively mild conditions. Biological materials can also be flexible and potentially biodegradable.

Their weakness has usually been electrical performance. Cable bacteria suggest nature may have found a way around that tradeoff.

Scientists still do not know exactly how cable bacteria biosynthesize the nickel-organic framework, and parts of the nanoribbon architecture remain unresolved.

But evolution has already solved one problem materials scientists would like to reproduce: how to build a highly conductive, flexible electrical pathway largely from organic components under biological conditions.

Dr. Meysman says one especially promising possibility is flexible printed electronics, where conductive inks are deposited onto surfaces to create circuits, sensors, and other electronic components.

“The material produced by the bacteria provides a flexible and conductive material, and so flexible printed electronics—conductive inks—emerges as a promising application domain,” Dr. Meysman said.

“The challenge is to demonstrate that the biomaterial can be made in a cost-effective fashion,” Meysman added, “and that it has the same—or even better—properties than the electronic ink materials currently in use.”

Ultimately, for hundreds of millions of years, bacteria buried in mud may have been growing microscopic power cables.

Scientists are only now beginning to understand how they work.

The study, “Highly efficient long-range conduction through a biosynthetic nickel-organic framework,” appeared in Nature Communications.

Tim McMillan is a retired law enforcement executive, investigative reporter and co-founder of The Debrief. His writing typically focuses on defense, national security, the Intelligence Community and topics related to psychology. You can follow Tim on Twitter: @LtTimMcMillan.  Tim can be reached by email: tim@thedebrief.org or through encrypted email: LtTimMcMillan@protonmail.com 

LSD, psilocybin, and 2C-B are often classified together as psychedelics—but new brain imaging research in rats shows that each compound produces its own distinct pattern of brain activity.

These differences appeared during both the drugs‘ active effects and in brain scans taken one week later, according to a study published in Nature Communications.

Interest in psychedelic medicine has increased rapidly, with several compounds now being tested in clinical trials for conditions such as depression, PTSD, and addiction. Most previous studies have focused on individual drugs, leaving it unclear how the effects of different psychedelics actually overlap. To address this, researchers at the University of Southern Denmark designed a study to directly compare the effects of different psychedelics side by side.

Different Drugs, Different Fingerprints

Each drug produced its own distinct pattern of brain activity, and only a handful of changes showed up across all three.

“Psychedelic drugs are often discussed as if they work in the same way. But when we look at the brain, the differences are clear,” said Mikael Palner, associate professor at the University of Southern Denmark’s Department of Clinical Research and senior author of the study. “Each drug appears to affect its own networks, and that is new knowledge.”

2C-B and LSD drove the most changes while the drugs were active, but the more striking result showed up after the drugs had worn off. At the one-week mark, 2C-B primarily affected regions of the brain associated with reward, while LSD showed effects in areas involved in habits and motivation. Meanwhile, psilocybin primarily affected regions associated with emotion.

“What is interesting is that the differences do not only appear while the drugs are active. We can also see different traces in the brain afterwards,” said Frederik Gudmundsen, the study’s first author, who completed his PhD at the University of Southern Denmark and now works as a postdoc at Aarhus University’s Translational Neuropsychiatry Unit.

Not Better, Just Different: and Still a Long Way From the Clinic

None of this means one drug is better than another, but it does suggest psychedelics may not be one interchangeable category when it comes to developing them for medical practice.

“If the drugs affect the brain differently, it is also possible that they may eventually prove better suited to different disorders,” Palner said. “We do not know that yet, but our study provides a biological starting point for investigating it.”

Despite these intriguing findings, the research does not determine if these distinct patterns of brain activity from different psychedelic substances apply to human patients. The researchers acknowledge this limitation, noting that the results are based on animal models and that further studies in humans are necessary to determine if the same differences apply.

The authors also disclosed that Mikael Palner holds shares in the psychedelic drug companies Compass Pathways and AtaiBeckley, but neither company was involved in the research.

The study still offers a detailed biological picture of how different psychedelic substances alter brain metabolism and network activity and could help researchers investigate whether specific compounds might eventually prove better suited to particular disorders.

For now, researchers have yet to determine whether LSD, psilocybin, and 2C-B will ultimately have distinct roles in medicine or whether the differences between them are less important in humans.

Austin Burgess is a writer and researcher with a background in sales, marketing, and data analytics. He holds an MBA, a Bachelor of Science in Business Administration, and a data analytics certification. His work focuses on breaking scientific developments, with an emphasis on emerging biology, cognitive neuroscience, and archaeological discoveries.

The extinct American cheetah wasn’t a true cheetah at all, say biologists in new research overturning our previous understanding of the legendary predator, revealing a cautionary tale about superficial scientific interpretations.

In a recent paper published in Current Biology, a research team led by scientists at the University of California, Santa Cruz, revealed that the so-called “American cheetah” is actually a relative of the Puma, adapted to Arctic conditions.

Scientifically known as Miracinonyx trumani, the American cheetah has turned out to be a fish-eating Puma relative and quite a distinct creature from the one envisioned by earlier researchers, as their suggestions were based primarily on the animal’s physical form. Using fossils discovered as far north as the Arctic Yukon, the team analyzed the species’ nuclear paleogenomes and stable isotopes, reconsidering the big cat at the genetic level.

Convergent Evolution

M. trumani had long front legs and a slender body, weighing roughly 150 pounds and measuring about eight feet long and three feet tall. This sleek form allowed it to cross vast swathes of Pleistocene North America and achieve cheetah-like speeds.

While it may have developed a form similar to the cheetah, this is simply a case of convergent evolution, after the “American cheetah” split from the puma lineage some 2.6 million years ago. Fossils used in the research date from 23,000 to 31,000 years old, considerably more recent than that initial split.

Although the American cheetah is extinct today, its influence is still felt. One evolutionary theory is that the fastest North American land animal, the pronghorn, which can run up to 60 miles per hour, owes its tremendous speed to evolving to escape the swift predator.

Where The “American Cheetah” Roamed

One of the most intriguing elements of the new research is that it extends the cat’s habitat north by 20° latitude, into the Arctic Yukon. The team says that, depending on latitude, the species could occupy distinctly different ecological niches, demonstrating a high degree of adaptability to prevailing conditions.

To the south, the American cheetah had long been recognized as residing in Florida and Wyoming. In these areas, rich in temperate grasslands, the cat would have behaved as a generalist predator. However, in the harsher Arctic Yukon, it acted as a tertiary predator, living off fish like salmon.

“These cats were remarkably flexible, much like pumas are across their range today,” said lead author Molly Cassatt-Johnstone, a Ph.D. candidate in the Paleogenomics Lab at UC Santa Cruz. “We found loss-of-function mutations in certain genes that regulate circadian rhythms, suggesting they may have adapted to the extreme light cycles of summers and winters in northern latitudes.”

American Cheetah Extinction

The genes revealed further peculiarities of M. Trumani. Generally, cats are known for a lack of interest in sweet foods, but this particular cat also lacked a sour taste receptor, a trait associated with specialized diets. Animals normally use this receptor to identify food that is safe to eat.

The fossils tell the story of a slow, steady decline in the species over the course of the Pleistocene. One notable factor could be their distinct lack of genetic diversity, which the researchers do not attribute to inbreeding.

“Miracinonyx persisted for a very long time without the signs of inbreeding we’d expect before a collapse,” senior author Beth Shapiro, professor of ecology and evolutionary biology at UC Santa Cruz and co-director of the Paleogenomics Lab, concluded. “The decline was slow, not sudden, and that may be what left it unable to adapt when the climate shifted.”

The paper, “Range and Diet Diversity in the Pleistocene American ‘Cheetah,’ Miracinonyx Trumani,” appeared in Current Biology on September 4, 2026.

Ryan Whalen covers science and technology for The Debrief. He holds an MA in History and a Master of Library and Information Science with a certificate in Data Science. He can be contacted at ryan@thedebrief.org, and follow him on Twitter @mdntwvlf.

A recent study published in Protist reports that a marine microorganism reproduces in a previously unknown way: by creating new cells inside its body, then rupturing to release them.

The bizarre process is reminiscent of the reproductive horror depicted in the movie Alien, albeit on a microscopic scale.

This microbe is part of the Labyrinthulomycetes, a group of marine microorganisms that play a key role in recycling nutrients by breaking down dead plants and animals in salty environments. Beyond their ecological importance, some species in this group are valued for producing omega-3 fatty acids like DHA, which is also found in oily fish, and carotenoids, pigments used in food coloring.

This newly discovered species also contains roughly 50% protein, adding to its potential commercial value for applications such as food supplements, infant formula, and aquaculture.

An “Alien” Reproductive Strategy

“Instead of dividing into two, as we would expect, the mature cells develop a large internal chamber in which entirely new daughter cells grow,” said Professor Peter Morris, a plant biologist at Heriot-Watt University.

“Some of those daughters already have another developing generation inside them, before they are released when the mother cell breaks open,” Morris added. “So, these microbes can be pregnant grandmothers, in the same way as some species of greenfly are born already pregnant.”

The researchers named the new species Caledochytrium aldermanii, drawing from Caledonia, the Latin name for Scotland, where it was discovered in three locations. The species name also recognizes Dr. David Alderman, whose early work culturing the microbe made the study possible.

This discovery resulted from a long-term collaboration among Heriot-Watt University, its spinout company Strameno, CEFAS Weymouth, and the Institute of Aquaculture at Stirling University.

Caught by Watching, Not Just Sequencing

Dr. Jane Polglase, who has spent nearly five decades studying Labyrinthulomycetes and co-founded Strameno with Alderman and Dr. Lydia Brown, helped document the microbe’s unusual reproduction. The team relied on traditional observation and description, an approach less common in today’s genomics-focused research.

“While lots of scientists now focus on the DNA of any creature, we’ve taken an old-fashioned approach, also observing the microbe’s behavior and describing its morphology fully,” Polglase said. “If we had not done that, we never would have captured this peculiar reproductive process on camera.” When the team finally caught it under an electron microscope, she said, “We couldn’t believe what we were seeing.”

Resourceful Marine Recyclers

Researchers found Caledochytrium in a variety of habitats, including octopus dens, on rainbow trout, and in a salt marsh along Scotland’s east coast. The researchers believe it contributes to nutrient recycling by breaking down animal and plant material.

An important part of this recycling process is the ectoplasmic net, a network of membranes the microbe creates to move around, feed, and stay buoyant. When it moves to a new surface, the microbe leaves the net behind, where marine larvae can feed on the leftover material, helping pass protein and lipids up the food chain.

What Comes Next

“Understanding how this species reproduces is key to understanding how it could be used in commercial settings, like aquaculture,” Morris said.

With this phase of research complete, the Heriot-Watt and Strameno team hopes others will continue the work. The discovery highlights how much remains to be learned about the diversity and behavior of life in the oceans.

Austin Burgess is a writer and researcher with a background in sales, marketing, and data analytics. He holds an MBA, a Bachelor of Science in Business Administration, and a data analytics certification. His work focuses on breaking scientific developments, with an emphasis on emerging biology, cognitive neuroscience, and archaeological discoveries.

Astronomers monitoring an unusual young neutron star report a stellar surprise after years of apparent silence, as the space object has displayed sudden changes in its rotation, including one large event they characterize as a “glitch” that could point to evidence of exotic matter.

The discovery involves a 41,000-year-old pulsar known as PSR J1637−4642, which completes each of its rotations approximately every 154 milliseconds. Glitches like the one recently observed by astronomers are common for young pulsars like this, although this one had shown no similar behavior for close to a decade after its initial discovery.

The new observations have prompted questions over why PSR J1637−4642 has suddenly begun to display such activity.

When a Pulsar’s Spin Speeds Up

Pulsars are a variety of neutron stars characterized by their rapid rotation, which releases beams of electromagnetic radiation that can sweep past Earth at frequent intervals. Because of this, it allows astronomers to track their rotation with extreme precision.

Every so often, the regularity of their activity can become interrupted if a pulsar begins spinning more quickly, and scientists currently don’t fully understand what drives these “glitches.” One possible reason they occur involves interactions between the neutron star’s solid exterior and the exotic superfluid material they are believed to contain.

Based on this interpretation of pulsars, the differences in rotation that occur between the crust and their superfluid centers may give rise to the accumulation of angular momentum, which is suddenly transferred to the crust. This may create the energy required to speed up their observable rotation.

More Than a Decade of Observations

The research, led by Zhaoyi Wang of Xiamen University, looked at more than fifteen years of observations collected using Australia’s Murriyang radio telescope at Parkes. Based on their analysis, three rotational glitches were detected, beginning with a particularly powerful event that occurred in 2018.

At that time, the frequency of the pulsar’s rotation abruptly increased by around 17.54 microhertz­—a fractional change of roughly 2.7 parts per million. The two other, much smaller glitches followed at around three years and 2.7 years later.

“PSR J1637−4642 adds to the growing class of young pulsars that exhibit large glitches after extended intervals of apparent quiescence,” the researchers write in a recent study detailing their findings.

During observations of PSR J1637−4642, astronomers found that its most significant glitch didn’t end immediately, and instead underwent a gradual period where it relaxed over more than 100 days of monitoring.

“Our results demonstrate that even ‘quiet’ pulsars can harbor significant glitch activity,” the researchers conclude.

Ultimately, the several years of silence exhibited by this pulsar before its sudden, massive glitch may represent the culmination of a period during which stresses accumulated over time, building up to an unusual detection by astronomers that offers new insights into this peculiar class of stars.

The team’s findings were reported in a recent study, “Discovery of Three Glitches in the previously quiet pulsar PSR J1637−4642,” which was uploaded to the arXiv preprint server and has been accepted for publication in the Astrophysical Journal Letters.

Micah Hanks is the Editor-in-Chief and Co-Founder of The Debrief. A longtime reporter on science, defense, and technology with a focus on space and astronomy, he can be reached at micah@thedebrief.org. Follow him on X @MicahHanks, and at micahhanks.com.

In a promising advancement in the search for dark matter, scientists have transformed a tiny magnet into a detector that can sense some of nature’s faintest forces—with a little help from levitation.

The research could help researchers detect some of the heaviest particles that are believed to have ever inhabited the universe, according to physicists.

Led by Rice University physicist Christopher Tunnell, the achievement was made using a tiny permanent magnet—one around the size of a grain of sand—which they levitated over a superconductor that was chilled to freezing cold temperatures just above absolute zero.

Since the magnet floats without encountering any surfaces, this dramatically reduces friction, allowing the Rice team to carefully monitor its movements, some of which are as small as around one-hundredth of a single atom. Such subtleties of its motion offer a novel possibility: that the magnet’s faint movements could serve as an effective signal if a massive dark matter particle passed through the detector.

Unusual Candidates for Dark Matter Particles

“Dark matter could be hiding at masses that our traditional experiments were never built to reach,” Tunnell said in a recent statement, noting that by leveraging the team’s novel detector, “we can begin searching a part of the dark matter landscape that has largely been out of experimental reach despite being the focus of extensive theoretical study by my Rice cosmology colleague Andrew Long.”

Among the most mysterious phenomena in the universe, dark matter is believed to comprise most of the matter that populates the cosmos and exerts gravitational effects that influence the formation and behavior of galaxies. Despite this, scientists have remained unsuccessful in detecting it or even determining what it is comprised of.

There are several experiments that hunt for hypothetical dark matter particles, which scientists believe have masses that are similar to those of atoms or subatomic particles. Still, there are some theoretical models which suggest much heavier particles could also qualify—some approaching sizes as large as a human cell.

A Novel Means of Detecting Dark Matter

Detecting something so large would require a very different kind of dark matter detector. To search for the kinds of interactions that smaller particles would be expected to generate, the Rice researchers instead looked for an impulse—one more likely to result from such an “ultraheavy” dark matter particle as it interacted with the detector.

“Instead of looking for a steady signal, we are waiting for very small knocks,” explained Rice postdoctoral researcher Juehang Qin.

Over the course of one month, the team collected observations that focused mainly on quiet overnight periods when vibrations and other environmental disturbances were minimized. Unfortunately, no promising detections were made during this time.

Still, important results can also be derived from a lack of any definitive discoveries, especially when it comes to a field like particle physics. In this case, that’s because the absence of a signal allowed the researchers to place a few constraints on the combinations of dark matter masses and interaction strengths that should have been expected to produce detectable effects.

Altogether, the team’s experiment looked at nine orders of magnitude in its search for possible dark matter particle passes, which included searches for particles as much as 10 million times heavier than those investigated in past similar experiments.

Next Steps

Going forward, the next step would be to increase the experiment’s sensitivity by cooling the magnet even further, observing for longer periods, and eventually successfully levitating several magnets simultaneously. Multiple detectors could also help scientists determine whether real interactions involving dark matter are occurring, as opposed to false positives that might arise from vibrations or other kinds of interference.

Although the Rice team’s work is only a first step, their experiments with a tiny levitating magnet mark a promising pathway toward future potential detections, which may finally unlock new clues to the universe’s mysterious dark matter landscape.

The team’s research was detailed at the 2026 International Conference on Particle Physics and Cosmology, and additional details can be found here.

Micah Hanks is the Editor-in-Chief and Co-Founder of The Debrief. A longtime reporter on science, defense, and technology with a focus on space and astronomy, he can be reached at micah@thedebrief.org. Follow him on X @MicahHanks, and at micahhanks.com.

More than 4,000 years ago, an Egyptian official named Sekhentiu-Ptah held a collection of titles that placed him remarkably close to royal power. He oversaw the king’s works and documents, supervised scribes, and even served as the “Keeper of the Secrets of Royal Commands.”

Now, archaeologists have found his tomb. An Egyptian archaeological mission excavating the Saqqara necropolis in Giza has uncovered the Old Kingdom tomb of Sekhentiu-Ptah, including its funerary chapel, an intact false door, and a complete collection of alabaster ritual objects still positioned where they were left thousands of years ago.

Nearby, researchers discovered an interconnected network of burial shafts containing human remains, more than 100 funerary figurines, and three stone sarcophagi that were still sealed when archaeologists found them.

Speaking with The Jerusalem Post, Mohamed Abdel-Badie, head of Egypt’s Antiquities Sector, said finding a complete set of funerary objects still in their original position was “an important discovery, offering valuable information about funerary rituals and practices during the Old Kingdom.”

The discovery was made during the Egyptian mission’s first excavation season in Sector A, west of the Bubasteion at Saqqara, roughly 20 miles south of Cairo. Saqqara served as a major burial ground for ancient Memphis and contains monuments and tombs spanning thousands of years of Egyptian history.

Sekhentiu-Ptah’s tomb dates to the Old Kingdom, the era roughly spanning the third millennium BCE that witnessed the construction of Egypt’s great pyramids.

Inside the remains of his funerary chapel, archaeologists encountered a false door still standing in its original location. Such doors were symbolic thresholds associated with the deceased and the offerings made to sustain them in the afterlife.

Directly in front of the false door was a complete group of alabaster ritual objects that had apparently remained together in their archaeological context. The assemblage includes an offering table and offering disk, purification basin, jug, and another basin.

Hieroglyphic inscriptions on the false door and funerary objects revealed not only Sekhentiu-Ptah’s name but an extraordinary résumé.

He was identified as Royal Chamberlain, Overseer of All the King’s Works, Overseer of Royal Documents, Keeper of the Secrets of Royal Commands, Priest of the goddess Maat, and Overseer of the Scribes. Together, the titles indicate that Sekhentiu-Ptah occupied a prominent position within Egypt’s royal administration.

Archaeologists also uncovered a system of interconnected burial shafts filled with human burials and large quantities of painted funerary cartonnage, a material commonly made from layers of linen or papyrus and plaster and used in funerary coverings.

Archaeologists recovered more than 100 faience ushabti figurines. These small figures were placed in Egyptian tombs to perform work for the deceased in the afterlife symbolically. Archaeologists also found a wooden falcon statue, pottery, and three stone sarcophagi that were kept sealed in their original condition.

The collection is particularly interesting because it captures different chapters in Saqqara’s history. While Sekhentiu-Ptah’s tomb belongs to the Old Kingdom, material from the surrounding shafts provides evidence for funerary practices during the much later Late Period. In essence, the site became a cemetery layered on top of a cemetery, repeatedly returned to and repurposed across Egyptian history.

Not everything survived undisturbed. Archaeologists found openings cut between some burial chambers, evidence that ancient tomb robbers had already penetrated portions of the complex. Even so, enough remained intact to allow researchers to reconstruct how the necropolis changed over time.

The surviving artifacts retain “great archaeological and scientific value, contributing to understanding the site’s internal layout and the development of its architecture through its successive historical phases,” excavation director Dr. Amr El-Tayebi explained.

For now, the discovery is a work in progress. The Egyptian team is continuing to document and compare the artifacts with material recovered elsewhere in Egypt, with plans to publish the results in peer-reviewed scientific journals. Archaeologists also believe Sector A could contain additional structures and artifacts still waiting beneath the sands of Saqqara.

Tim McMillan is a retired law enforcement executive, investigative reporter and co-founder of The Debrief. His writing typically focuses on defense, national security, the Intelligence Community and topics related to psychology. You can follow Tim on Twitter: @LtTimMcMillan.  Tim can be reached by email: tim@thedebrief.org or through encrypted email: LtTimMcMillan@protonmail.com 

The story of a Medieval European plague is coming into focus through historic manuscripts, but not in the way you might think. Instead of providing mere historical accounts, the animal skins from which these Medieval volumes are constructed provide genetic evidence for reconstructing the 3,500-year story of the sheepox virus (SPPV), which decimated European livestock.

In a recent paper published in Science Advances, an international team of interdisciplinary researchers ranging from geneticists and virologists to historians and conservators explored the history of this pre-modern plague.

The new work combs through Medieval history to reveal the lineages of diseases plaguing modern herds, providing new insight into the viruses threatening modern animal agriculture.

Medieval Texts

Chosen for the work were some of the most important Medieval manuscripts that Europe has to offer, including the millennium-old York Gospels, one of the best surviving examples of an early Anglo-Saxon illuminated manuscript. Another work used in the study was one of the earliest known English dictionaries, the Corpus Glossary of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge. Beyond these notable examples, the team exploited a variety of English and continental European works.

Medieval volumes did not contain paper pages like modern books, but instead, vellum pages made of calfskin, as well as the skins of goats and sheep. Therefore, these works are preserved as hundreds-of-years-old biological specimens for modern geneticists.

SPPV tends to target younger animals, such as the calves from whom vellum is made, and is highly contagious, rapidly spreading through large portions of a herd. While these factors made the disease easier for modern researchers to study via vellum samples, it also made it devastating to wool, meat, and milk production.

Extracting DNA

“The recording of ancient DNA of pathogens has completely changed our understanding of infectious disease in the past, and here we show that parchment can also preserve animal pathogen DNA. It is possible that archives and libraries around the world also contain the genetic traces of disease outbreaks in animals in the past,” said lead author Louis L’Hôte, PhD candidate at the University of Cambridge, Dublin.

“These genomes help us understand how these pathogens evolved and how they impacted past societies – such as sheeppox virus, which we show has been affecting Eurasian sheep herds for at least three and a half millennia,” L’Hôte added.

With the rapid spread of SPPV across herds, many manuscripts contained SPPV DNA on multiple pages within the same manuscript. Additionally, finding SPPV DNA on pages made from both calf and goat skin marks it as a rare example of cross-species infection.

“Parchment making has been considered a vanishing craft, but we are beginning to understand just how much of the past it has retained. This project shows that parchments not only preserve our cultural history for hundreds of years, but also the landscape of disease in our livestock in the medieval period,” said supervising author Dr Kevin G. Daly, Associate Professor at UCD School of Agriculture and Food Science.

“This kind of exciting, surprising discovery is only possible when researchers from a range of disciplines come together to share their expertise and data,” Day said, calling this “a generosity and trust that collaborative science depends on.”

Exploring Medieval DNA

The Medieval manuscripts combine with even older surviving biological records, such as teeth, to show the virus reaching back 3,700 years. Between the manuscripts and archaeological finds, the team identified 41 samples containing related viruses.

Along with the goatpox virus and the lumpy skin disease virus, SPPV belongs to a category called capripoxviruses. The new research allowed the team to compare the ancient and modern sequences to determine that the division between the various viruses in the group occurred between 3,700 and 11,500 years ago, around the time animal domestication took hold in Europe as sheep came off the steppe.

“Ancient genomes can help us understand how these pathogens affecting us today evolved. We find that, unlike the smallpox virus, the sheeppox virus genome was very stable over the last few millennia,” L’Hôte concluded. “This might mean that genetic changes before this point were very important to how the sheeppox virus evolved to infect its host, which may help us fight the pathogen in the future.”

The paper, “3,500 years of Sheeppox Virus Evolution Inferred from Archaeological and Codicological Genomes,” appeared in Science Advances on September 2, 2026.

Ryan Whalen covers science and technology for The Debrief. He holds an MA in History and a Master of Library and Information Science with a certificate in Data Science. He can be contacted at ryan@thedebrief.org, and follow him on Twitter @mdntwvlf.

Prehistoric art hidden in caves throughout southwestern Ireland for thousands of years could push back the timeline on the earliest human presence on the Emerald Isle by as much as 5,000 years, archaeologists say.

The remarkable discoveries may reveal a previously unknown chapter in the ancient history of human migrations across the British Isles during the Ice Age, and how they once traversed a portion of the landscape that is now sunken beneath the Irish Sea.

Reported by a team of researchers with the international Lost Land Bridge Project, the discoveries involve prehistoric markings located in eight caves in Ireland that could potentially date as far back as 15,000 years ago.

Some are engravings into the cave’s stone walls, while others are markings made with ochre and charcoal, and include lines traced along cave surfaces that appear to depict ancient animals that include deer, and extinct species such as mammoths.

If confirmed, Ireland’s long-hidden ancient artwork could dramatically shift past thinking about the earliest evidence of human arrivals on the island, which was previously believed to have occurred around 10,500 years ago.

Early Humans Crossing an Ice Age Landscape

If humans arrived in Ireland this early, it also raises an intriguing possibility: that they might have done so by traversing terrain that would only have been exposed amid the lower sea levels that prevailed toward the end of the last Ice Age.

This effect was due to the amount of water that was held within the vast glaciers near Earth’s poles, which, in addition to lowering sea levels, helped to reshape the geography of northwestern Europe during the Pleistocene.

Because of this, certain portions of the ancient landscape that are now submerged beneath ocean waters would have been exposed. Among these, one that stretched from modern Pembrokeshire in Wales and southeastern Ireland near Rosslare might have been used by ancient travelers who could have made their way to Ireland, leaving a record of their Ice Age journey on the walls of caves they used as shelter, according to Dr. George Nash of the University of Liverpool, who coordinated the project.

Nash believes this ancient crossing could have comprised a 46-mile-long area, where ancient nomadic people following natural subsistence patterns would have encountered vast expanses of grassland and vegetation, along with ample resources that included horses, bison, reindeer, mammoths, and other animals that these ancient hunter-gatherers were skilled at hunting.

Evidence from throughout Europe and other parts of the ancient world already shows that ancient hunter-gatherers were well-accustomed to following migrating animals and seasonal resources, and that the landscape could have provided a natural route westward.

Nash recently said that until now, archaeologists had relied mainly on accidental discoveries that suggested a human presence in Ireland by around 10,500 years ago. However, a growing number of archaeologists had begun to doubt that this was the period when humans initially arrived.

“We just weren’t looking hard enough, and not in the right places,” Nash said.

Technology Unveils Evidence of Ancient Art

To determine locations where reliable evidence of an earlier human presence might be found, the researchers examined several features associated with prehistoric caves in southern Wales, where documented discoveries linked them to an early human presence.

Based on these characteristics, the team then relied on computer modeling to help them identify Irish locations that had similar features.

The team was assisted by Shane Diffily, an expert in caving, and digital mapping consultant Darren Lee, which allowed them to quickly narrow their search to just under 30 potentially promising caves throughout southwestern Ireland, according to Heritage Daily.

Of those locations, eight were found to contain what appeared to be various kinds of prehistoric rock art. The exact locations of those caves have not been released by the team, to protect the sites from vandalism, or potential looting—a major issue that has long complicated archaeological investigations.

Striking Discoveries

Along with direct engravings into limestone surfaces and markings made with ochre and charcoal, researchers also discovered a few instances of what appear to be “finger flutings,” where soft surfaces such as clay or sediment were marked by ancient artists who dragged their fingers along such surfaces.

One of the most significant discoveries uncovered by Nash and the team appears to be a portion of a deer, and an image within one of the caves that appears to represent a mammoth. Examples like these could potentially help provide connections to similar examples known from prehistoric rock art that has been documented in Wales.

From those sites, some of the same prehistoric artists may have made their way across the ancient land bridge that was once available, leaving their markings at similar sites that once offered shelter as they arrived in Ireland.

Unveiling a Lost Chapter of Ireland’s Past

The initial discoveries at the newly identified eight cave locations may represent only a small portion of the long-overlooked archaeological evidence throughout Ireland, which may document its earliest arrivals. Future investigations will likely focus on sites located near Wexford, Waterford, Cork, and other areas along routes that people may have followed as they made their way to southwestern Ireland.

As investigations continue, Nash and the research team say that reliable dating of the art will be an important next step toward determining how early these prehistoric artists might have arrived.

Once that testing is completed, it will help determine whether the timescales on the arrival of Ireland’s earliest human inhabitants will indeed be pushed back by thousands of years. If so, the newly uncovered cave art could offer an unprecedented look at the lives of those ancient hunter-gatherers who once traversed a landscape before it sank beneath rising ocean waters as Ice Age glaciers retreated.

Micah Hanks is the Editor-in-Chief and Co-Founder of The Debrief. A longtime reporter on science, defense, and technology with a focus on space and astronomy, he can be reached at micah@thedebrief.org. Follow him on X @MicahHanks, and at micahhanks.com.

Some of nature’s most unusual finds remain unrecognized for decades, or even centuries, after their initial discovery—and that has proven true once again with several strange new creatures recently uncovered in museum collections and from other sources.

The findings reveal at least ten new examples of some of the animal kingdom’s strangest worms, showcasing their remarkable diversity and a few unusual traits, such as bodies that appear to repeatedly branch into multiple different ends, almost evoking the fantastic beasts of ancient mythology.

Such characteristics, however, are what earned these creatures their unique name: branching worms. These marine animals belong to a group of creatures known as annelids and possess a single head but grow elaborate, almost plant-like networks of branching bodies.

The creatures are known to science, although they are reclusive, spending most of their lives hidden inside sea sponges that thrive in a range of different ocean environments, with their many branching appendages spreading throughout the internal structures of their aquatic hosts.

New Examples of Earth’s Strangest Worms

Previously, only three varieties of these oceanic oddities were known. However, a new study published in the Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society has revealed as many as ten likely new species, some of which had been hidden away in museum collections for more than a century.

The study, led by researchers at the University of Göttingen, used the specimens, along with genetic data and other information, to reconstruct the evolutionary history of the animals with the help of DNA sequencing, anatomical analyses, and several newly collected specimens.

Based on their findings, a total of thirteen distinct forms of branching worms are now known, which are found across the Indo-Pacific, the Red Sea, and the ocean waters near New Zealand. Based on the available genetic data, these creatures appear to stem from two major evolutionary lineages: Ramisyllis, a genus that was already known to researchers, and now an entirely new genus, which has been dubbed Cladosyllis.

“Our findings would have been impossible without access to valuable museum specimens,” said study leader Professor Maria Teresa Aguado, Scientific Curator of the Biodiversity Museum at Göttingen University. “These collections are not just repositories of old samples, but resources that continue to generate new discoveries.”

Hidden in Plain Sight

Remarkably, some of these specimens had been accessible to researchers for more than a century. Several of the newly assessed early specimens were retrieved from within sponges held in the Senckenberg collection, which dates to 1914.

Researchers were successfully able to reveal these “hidden” specimens without damaging their hosts by using micro-computed tomography (micro-CT) imaging.

However, along with the discoveries, a few answers to longstanding questions have also emerged.

Going back to the nineteenth century, many of these rare branching worms were classified as a single widespread species. However, now researchers say that a far more diverse evolutionary family exists, with various kinds associated closely with specific sponge hosts in each of the geographic regions where they reside.

Some of the newly identified specimens inhabit sponges that thrive in shallow water, while others dwell within glass sponges, a species that is found at depths exceeding 1,000 meters below the surface. This reveals the level of specialization among different hosts, which the research team believes has been a driving force behind the diversity of these bizarre worms that have evolved to rely on them.

Despite their special adaptations, it is nonetheless believed that all branching worms evolved from a common ancestor, meaning that their very unusual body plan evolved only once, and thereafter produced two major lineages with some physical differences.

The research team believes there are likely to be other undiscovered varieties of branching worms out there, and thanks to the new research, discovering them could be more feasible in the near future, and may reveal additional insights into these bizarre ocean worms and their unique evolutionary place in marine biodiversity.

The study, “Many Branches, One Lineage: Museomic Insights into the Diversity and Evolution of Branching Syllid Worms,” appeared in the Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society.

Micah Hanks is the Editor-in-Chief and Co-Founder of The Debrief. A longtime reporter on science, defense, and technology with a focus on space and astronomy, he can be reached at micah@thedebrief.org. Follow him on X @MicahHanks, and at micahhanks.com.

The US Army has authorized its first production contract for a directed energy weapons system designed to take down uncrewed threats with high-energy lasers.

Designed under the Enduring High Energy Laser program (E-HEL), the LOCUST X3 laser counter-drone system weapon dramatically reduces the cost of taking out threats like adversarial drones compared with expensive kinetic missile systems. AeroVironment, Inc., of Albuquerque, New Mexico, will produce the new laser weapons for the U.S. Army.

The move marks a major step toward turning what was once a science-fiction trope into a battlefield reality alongside AI, drones, and other advanced technologies.

America’s Laser Weapon

“This first-of-its-kind directed energy program will enable our formations to defeat unmanned systems and dominate from the outset. Pairing human ingenuity with advanced technology is what ensures our Army will continue to outpace America’s adversaries,” stated General Christopher LaNeve, Vice Chief of Staff of the Army.

LOCUST X3 draws electrical energy from a magazine to produce the system’s high-energy beam. The system’s power supply then regenerates that magazine, preparing it for further action. This means that, on a per-shot basis, the system is far cheaper to operate than kinetic weapons like missiles, which are expended when fired.

As a result, countering the growing threat posed by uncrewed aerial vehicles could become considerably less economically burdensome. The technology could also help mitigate logistics and supply challenges, which have become a major concern amid the U.S.-Iran war as reports of dangerously low missile stockpiles continue to emerge.

Across Varying Battlefields

“The key to successfully countering all levels of drones is a layered defense of sensors and effectors. AV and the Army have worked for years to develop directed energy solutions, and we are proud to give our soldiers a decisive edge against drone threats,” said the Honorable Mike Obadal, Under Secretary of the Army.

The E-HEL system is designed to be modular, with 11 major interfaces allowing it to be integrated with a variety of platforms and vehicles. With this flexibility, the system can be deployed at permanent installations, temporary bases, and aboard mobile vehicles. Its design also allows for ongoing upgrades as the technology improves. According to U.S. Army Public Affairs, this modular approach will allow LOCUST X3 to be quickly integrated and used across a wide variety of operations.

Making the Laser Weapon a Reality

The contract to develop the systems is valued at $465 million.

“The E-HEL program is an example of how the Army has successfully utilized MOSA, a key element of acquisition reform, as part of our efforts to field technology quickly with an interface to upgrade in the future,” said the Honorable Brent Ingraham, Assistant Secretary of the Army for Acquisition, Logistics and Technology and Army Acquisition Executive. “Directed energy weapons have been considered S&T projects, and I’m proud that the Army is moving at speed and scale to deliver this first time capability,” he concluded.

Moving beyond its origins as an expensive laboratory technology, the E-HEL program is bringing laser weapons closer to widespread practical use. According to the Army, the system is scalable and affordable enough for broad integration, with dozens expected to be delivered annually. No longer relegated to testing, the Army is now working to integrate the system across the force, ensuring units will be prepared to deploy it against uncrewed aerial threats once it arrives.

Ryan Whalen covers science and technology for The Debrief. He holds an MA in History and a Master of Library and Information Science with a certificate in Data Science. He can be contacted at ryan@thedebrief.org, and follow him on Twitter @mdntwvlf.

Whether consciousness arises entirely within the brain or involves processes beyond it has long been debated in scientific and philosophical circles. Historically, most academics have associated consciousness with neurons firing and communicating information; however, precisely how neural activity gives rise to subjective experience remains an open question.

Neuroscientist and consciousness researcher Christof Koch, a former faculty member at institutions including MIT and Caltech, challenges academics to take a closer look at what philosophers call the “hard problem” of consciousness: how the physical processes of the brain could produce subjective experiences in humans.

Earlier this year, Koch presented his arguments at the “Behind and Beyond the Brain” Symposium organized by the Bial Foundation, where he argued that the nature of consciousness, as well as phenomena like near-death experiences, may require a broader scientific framework.

Koch focused on three areas. First is the physical brain itself; second is the question of how we can truly agree on what is “real.” What does blue actually look like to you? What does pain feel like? These questions are difficult to answer scientifically as universal truths.

Third are unexplained experiences that may not fit neatly within a materialistic scientific framework, such as near-death experiences.

Revisiting an old approach 

Looking at older philosophical models might lead researchers toward new understandings or modern ways of approaching consciousness. Koch points to concepts such as idealism and panpsychism.

Idealism holds that consciousness or mind is fundamental to reality—mind comes first, matter second—while panpsychism holds that consciousness is a fundamental feature of the universe.

If mainstream science adopted such a shift, it could profoundly change how we understand ourselves. A paradigm shift of sorts may be coming for humanity, potentially through the integration of these ideas and a move away from strictly materialistic approaches to consciousness.

Koch points to these concepts as potential frameworks in which consciousness remains a fundamental aspect of reality. He also supports the controversial Integrated Information Theory (IIT), which proposes that systems possessing sufficiently integrated information may have some form of subjective experience.

Consciousness in Perspective

For additional perspectives, The Debrief reached out to Julia Mossbridge, a neuroscientist and Sr Distinguished Fellow in AI, Mind and Society at Florida Atlantic University, and co-author of Transcendent Mind: Rethinking the Science of Consciousness (2017), the first American Psychological Association textbook on consciousness to not assume consciousness is reducible to brain activity.

“To many neuroscientists, the brain is starting to seem more like a radio receiver and potentially also a transmitter of consciousness,” Mossbridge said in an email to The Debrief. “The idea that’s losing more ground with every new credible report of so-called ‘anomalous cognition’ is the old one—that the brain creates consciousness like the gallbladder creates bile. Maybe it’s more apt to compare the brain to the heart—it doesn’t create blood, it circulates it. But because you can use a machine to circulate the blood, it’s very clear the heart is important, but in modern times, not essential for circulation.”

Mossbridge points to reports of what she calls “veridical conscious observations” that occur when a patient’s brain shows little or no measurable activity to researchers, or what is described as “brain death,” as proof that consciousness may not be produced entirely by the brain.

These experiences led Mossbridge to consider the brain as a “transformer of consciousness rather than a creator of it.” She compares the relationship to a broken radio: “If you have a disruption in your brain, like a broken radio, you might have a disruption of consciousness.”

To test this hypothesis, Mossbridge says researchers could investigate whether people can perceive and later accurately recall “veridical information” while in deep sleep or under general anesthesia. Although she acknowledges that even positive findings might have another explanation, noting that they “could be explained by basic psychic functioning using some unknown physical mechanism.”

“So if that kind of experiment produces a positive result, and is replicated, you either have to argue that psychic ability is real but is something the brain does nonlocally (like maybe through entanglement) or that consciousness can wander from the body and observe things, or both,” Mossbridge concluded.

“The physical but nonlocal explanation is a bit like a heart pumping the blood, the brain guiding consciousness. The consciousness-wandering explanation is a bit like a heart being fully separated from the blood–and another method is used to circulate consciousness.”

“Either way, the standard model fails,” she added.

Taken together, Koch and Mossbridge’s perspectives point to a provocative possibility: that understanding consciousness may ultimately require science to reconsider some of its most fundamental assumptions about the relationship between mind, brain, and reality.

Chrissy Newton is a PR professional and founder of VOCAB Communications. She hosts the Rebelliously Curious podcast, which can be found on The Debrief’s YouTube Channel. Follow her on X: @ChrissyNewton and at chrissynewton.com.

New clues to the formation of our planet’s oldest and largest ice sheet could help resolve a longstanding enigma about the southernmost continent.

Around 34 million years ago, Antarctica’s ice sheet began to take shape during a period when global temperatures were predominantly warmer than they are at present. The exact reason why such a large portion of Earth’s water would be subsumed into a massive ice sheet under such conditions has long perplexed researchers.

Now, a new study published in the journal Science suggests that clues to the mystery may exist beneath the ice itself, according to researchers who point to geological evidence that could help explain what led to the formation of Antarctica’s glaciers during a comparatively warm period in our planet’s history.

Clues to Why a Continent Froze

The East Antarctic Ice Sheet (EAIS) holds enough frozen water that it could raise sea levels around the world by more than 50 meters if a sudden, total melting event were ever to occur. Fortunately, scientists don’t anticipate that happening any time soon, although questions over what caused the formation of the largest mass of ice on our planet have remained one of the most predominant mysteries about Antarctica’s ancient history.

Based on geological evidence and paleo-climatological proxy data, the ice sheet’s formation occurred near the transition between the Eocene and Oligocene eras around 34 million years ago, marking a significant step along our planet’s path toward the cooler conditions that prevail today, even amid anthropogenic factors that contribute to ongoing climate changes.

As far as the causes behind this, scientists have long pointed to a reduction in atmospheric carbon dioxide as one potential driver of glaciation in Antarctica. However, this explanation also leads to questions: namely, that if falling CO2 and global cooling are believed to be the main factors behind the formation of Antarctica’s ice, then similar freezing should have occurred close to the North Pole as well.

Curiously, evidence suggests that glaciation in Earth’s northernmost regions didn’t begin catching up to its southern counterpart for another 20 to 25 million years. But what might account for this?

An Ancient Climate Missing Link

The new research, led by scientists at the University of Southampton in collaboration with an international team of researchers from Durham University and several other institutions, points to Antarctica’s changing landscape as a likely missing piece to this ancient puzzle.

“Antarctica’s land surface was gradually lifted to the point where ice could gain a permanent foothold, even while the surrounding polar oceans as well as global temperatures remained surprisingly warm,” said Thomas Gernon, a Professor of Earth Science at the University of Southampton and the study’s lead author.

By employing models that helped the team map the evolution of the Antarctic landscape, they were able to successfully reconstruct the ancient geological processes going all the way back to the original breakup between Africa and Antarctica that reshaped East Antarctica. This continental breakup led to the formation of a coastal escarpment in the region identified today as Dronning Maud Land, where an elevated plateau rose to nearly two kilometers, and extended close to 2,000 kilometers inland.

Over the 100 million years that followed, a wave of uplift and erosion gradually migrated inland toward Antarctica’s Gamburtsev Mountains, a process which would recur again during the Eocene, further elevating the region and increasing the amount of ancient Antarctica’s landmass that was above the permanent snow line, all of which occurred roughly 15 million years before mass-scale glaciation would begin on the continent.

Based on the team’s models, these major changes to the landscape shifted East Antarctica above the threshold where ice-sheet growth could begin occurring, the onset of which began around 45 million years ago.

Combined Factors Behind Antarctica’s Freeze

Another factor the team identified involves how the large-scale glaciation also caused more sunlight to be reflected away from Earth due to the icy surface’s light coloration, a process known as albedo feedback. The team believes this reflected sunlight may have contributed to as much as an additional degree Celsius of total global cooling.

That cooling alone, the researchers note, would not have been enough to cause widespread glaciation across the Northern Hemisphere, which generally features lower elevations.

Overall, the findings do indicate that Earth’s transition into an icehouse wasn’t something that was driven solely by climate. Instead, what seems most likely is that slow geological transformations occurring over many millions of years were likely to have been a primary contributor to this process, raising Antarctica’s landscape enough to facilitate ice sheet formation, and revealing how the evolution of landscapes can ultimately reshape the climate of an entire planet.

The recent study, “Continental breakup–driven uplift instigated East Antarctic Ice Sheet formation,” appeared in the journal Science.

Micah Hanks is the Editor-in-Chief and Co-Founder of The Debrief. A longtime reporter on science, defense, and technology with a focus on space and astronomy, he can be reached at micah@thedebrief.org. Follow him on X @MicahHanks, and at micahhanks.com.

NASA’s Hubble Space Telescope has glimpsed a strange ten-sided atmospheric wave at Saturn’s south pole, the first regular-sided jet pattern ever observed there.

In a recent paper published in Science Advances, researchers examined Saturn’s peculiar decahedron, detecting signs of an entirely new atmospheric phenomenon for the gas giant. A similar hexagon-shaped wave resides at Saturn’s north pole but differs in noticeable ways.

Years of Hubble observations from 2023 to 2025 allowed the team to trace subtle hints that they eventually resolved into the decagonal wave at Saturn’s south pole.

Observing the Solar System

“We’ve never seen anything quite like this in Saturn’s southern hemisphere,” said co-author Amy Simon, OPAL principal investigator, at NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Maryland. “The northern hexagon has been there every time we’ve looked for more than 40 years. This feature is different — it appears to be strengthening, giving us the rare opportunity to watch a giant atmospheric pattern develop.”

Since its 1990 launch into low Earth orbit, the Hubble Space Telescope has been observing our solar system, uncovering new details about our planetary neighbors. One such project is the Outer Planet Atmospheres Legacy (OPAL) program, which began collecting data with observations of Uranus in 2014 and now provides the crucial evidence for this discovery, with high-resolution images that resolve murky hints from ground-based observations.

As Saturn’s seasons changed, its south pole came into alignment with ground-based observatories. In images from those telescopes submitted to the Planetary Virtual Observatory Laboratory, amateur astronomers Trevor Barry and Jean-Paul Oger, along with Agustín Sánchez-Lavega of the University of the Basque Country in Spain, noticed something interesting happening on the gas giant.

A Strange Band on Saturn

The researchers spotted an undulating band along Saturn’s south pole, which, in further 2025 ground-based telescope images, began to suggest a decagonal (ten-sided) structure. With its incredible image clarity and spatial resolution, Hubble’s imagery finally allowed researchers to resolve the decagonal shape with certainty.

“Given Saturn’s symmetry in its north-south jet stream system, we have been searching for a counterpart to Saturn’s northern hexagon on the south pole in Hubble images since 1990,” said lead author Agustín Sánchez-Lavega of the University of the Basque Country in Spain. “Images from NASA’s Cassini spacecraft, which orbited Saturn between 2004 and 2017, showed no inkling of a long-lived formation, either. The Hubble data confirmed the feature’s presence back to 2023.”

The wave is an interesting three-dimensional feature that extends through multiple layers of the atmosphere within one of the planet’s jet streams. Because Hubble can image the planet in multiple wavelengths, the decagon’s location appears to shift between observations, as each wavelength penetrates the atmosphere to a different degree.

Questions About Saturn

“The most intriguing part to me is that this seems to have just formed recently,” said Simon. “The question is, why did it suddenly form now when we haven’t seen one before?”

Recognizing Saturn’s decagonal wave is only a first step. Follow-up observations to collect more data and computer models to piece together what is occurring on the planet will be required to firmly grasp the phenomenon. Questions remain about how it formed, how long it may last, and how similar it is compared to the northern hexagonal wave.

One thing the team will be sure to watch for in their continued observations is whether the shape evolves or maintains its decagonal structure. Their continued work could provide important new insights into how atmospheric dynamics operate on gas giants and what they can reveal about our own planet’s atmospheric phenomena.

The paper, “A Decagon Wave Around Saturn’s South Pole,” appeared in Science Advances on September 2, 2026.

Ryan Whalen covers science and technology for The Debrief. He holds an MA in History and a Master of Library and Information Science with a certificate in Data Science. He can be contacted at ryan@thedebrief.org, and follow him on Twitter @mdntwvlf.

Archaeologists conducting a new series of excavations at the ancient Turkish city of Smyrna have uncovered three previously hidden rooms and a 1500-year-old Late Antiquity theater that earlier efforts had missed.

The new excavations, which took place in Izmir’s historic center, also uncovered a series of ancient paintings that had remained hidden for over a millennium, along with a Roman-era water channel that, unlike similar structures, seems to stop before reaching any nearby natural springs.

1,500-Year-Old Hidden Rooms, Ancient Paintings, and a Lost Theater

According to a statement from the Izmir Metropolitan Municipality, the work, which was  “conducted on behalf of Izmir Katip Celebi University with permission from the Ministry of Culture and Tourism,” expanded on previous excavations at the same site. However, the new excavation effort uncovered several previously unknown finds.

First, the archaeology team came across three new hidden rooms, or “spaces,” in an area where previous efforts had uncovered an ancient mosaic floor. According to the excavation team, two of the new spaces also contained mosaic floors. However, the third newly discovered space featured a marble floor.

Second, the research team uncovered what they described as a “theater area.” Researchers had not identified the theater during previous excavations.

Third, the Izmir authorities described a series of ancient wall paintings as the most visually striking component. According to the Metropolitan Ministry’s statement, the previously undiscovered wall paintings were placed around the Agora and the theater.

“This is the first time we have found wall paintings in these spaces,” explained Prof. Dr. Akin Ersoy, faculty member of the Turkish-Islamic Archaeology Department at Izmir Katip Celebi University and the head of the latest excavations.

“We Had Never Come Across Anything Like This in the Agora of Smyrna”

When dating the site, Prof. Dr. Ersoy said cities in the region underwent significant structural changes after the division of the Roman Empire at the end of the 4^th century A.D. These changes allowed the excavation team to date the site to sometime between the fifth and sixth centuries A.D. This ancient date makes the site over 1,500 years old, placing it in the period historians call Late Antiquity.

When discussing the architectural style of the new excavations, the team leader said they share some features with the Terrace Houses found at the ancient city of Ephesus. The research said the similarities suggest that the newly discovered structures may have served a public function. Still, he noted, these discoveries were unexpected.

“Until now, we had never come across anything like this in the Agora of Smyrna or around the theater.”

Given the likely historical period of the site’s construction and use, the research team also noted that the newly uncovered hidden room spaces and ancient paintings will offer previously unavailable insights into Smyrna’s transformation away from Roman influence.

150 Yards of Roman-Era Water Channel Also Unearthed

During the excavations, the team also traced a section of an ancient Roman-era water channel. The researchers suggested that the ancient channel carried water for roughly 2,000 years.

Although Roman-era water channels were typically connected to natural springs, Ersoy said the team has traced roughly 150 yards of channel and has yet to find its source. The team leader suggested a spring may lie just south of the site, near the Namazgah Bath and Kursunlu Mosque.

Future excavations are hoped to uncover more evidence of the ancient spring and perhaps even more hidden rooms and artworks left behind in the 1500-year-old city. 

Christopher Plain has spent the last six years as Associate News Editor and Head Science Reporter at The Debrief. Follow and connect with him on X, learn about his novels at plainfiction.com, or email him at christopher@thedebrief.org.

In Boé National Park, researchers have repeatedly encountered a small number of trees marked by gouged bark and piles of stones at their bases. These signs suggest that wild chimpanzees have returned to the same trees for years to throw rocks. According to a recent field account by University of Victoria researchers Robyn Nakano and Ammie Kalan, some of these sites have remained in use for over a decade.

This behavior, called accumulative stone throwing, has been observed in only four chimpanzee populations in West Africa. While rocks and trees are widespread in chimpanzee habitats, piling stones at specific trees is rare. Nakano, Kalan, and other researchers suggest this may be a cultural practice within certain groups rather than arising from environmental factors alone.

What the Behavior Looks Like

Video recordings collected through the Pan African Programme and analyzed in a 2016 Scientific Reports study led by Hjalmar Kühl show that mostly adult male chimpanzees throw rocks at particular trees and repeatedly return to the same trunks. During these events, the chimpanzees pant-hoot, a loud call used for long-distance communication, and sometimes perform buttress drumming by repeatedly striking the tree’s buttressed base with their hands and feet.

Pant-hooting and buttress drumming are typical features of displays put on by male chimpanzees. The fact that these behaviors occur alongside stone throwing suggests that accumulative stone throwing may have developed as a variation of these existing social displays.

A Ritualized Behavior, Not a Coincidence

Researchers suspect this behavior may be cultural rather than simply a response to environmental conditions because it occurs only in certain areas, even though appropriate rocks and trees are common throughout chimpanzees’ habitats. Within one population, only particular trees are used as throwing sites. Earlier studies have suggested that the behavior might function as a form of communication or could indicate places of symbolic significance within a community’s territory.

The behavior could also offer archaeologists a rare example of how repeated stone use and accumulation can create material traces that persist after the animals that made them have moved on.

Some primates use stones as tools, including populations that use rocks to open nuts for food. Accumulative stone throwing differs because the behavior occurs in a social context rather than during extractive foraging. The purpose of this behavior for the chimpanzees remains unclear.

Into the Boé Wilderness

Nakano and Kalan conducted their fieldwork from Béli, a village where the Dutch nonprofit Chimbo operates a solar-powered research compound with local partners. The team traveled 22 kilometers by bicycle and on foot into the savanna-woodland to establish a camp, working with field assistants Djei Baldé, Balu Séra, and master’s student Taylor Tippett from the Great Ape Behaviour Lab.

The Boé chimpanzees are not used to humans and tend to avoid them, making direct observation impossible. The team instead set up two video cameras at each known stone-throwing site and placed audio recorders nearby to monitor the area.

Each day began at 6:30 a.m. with visits to two to five sites to replace SD cards and batteries, check equipment, measure trees, and create 3D scans of rocks thrown at the trees for later analysis. The team also recorded chimpanzee nests, feeding traces, and vocalizations along the trails. Their camp was located beside the Fefine River, which continues flowing through the dry season and provides an important water source for wildlife.

A Decade of Stone Throwing

The team found that most sites first identified by the Pan African Programme and revisited in 2017 remained active when Nakano and Kalan’s team returned in 2026. Chimpanzees have returned to these same trees to throw rocks for more than ten years.

The video and audio collected during this trip will allow the team to identify the age and sex of individual stone-throwers and observe how nearby chimpanzees respond to these events. This data could help the researchers determine the purpose of this behavior.

A Landscape Under Threat

Chimpanzees’ habitat in Guinea-Bissau is becoming increasingly threatened by industrial mining. During fieldwork, the researchers discovered boreholes dug to explore bauxite, the ore used to produce aluminum. Although bauxite mining might help promote economic development, comparable operations in neighboring Guinea have caused habitat loss and pollution, with negative effects on both wildlife and local communities. The country’s political instability also presents challenges for environmental oversight.

Nakano and Kalan emphasize that losing these stone-throwing sites would be both a cultural and ecological loss, erasing a documented example of primate material culture.

What’s Still Unknown

Nakano and Kalan are still analyzing the footage from this field season, but the main question of why chimpanzees throw stones at these specific trees remains unanswered. Still, the evidence collected by the cameras and recorders could help determine whether the behavior functions as territorial signaling, long-distance communication, or something else entirely.

Austin Burgess is a writer and researcher with a background in sales, marketing, and data analytics. He holds an MBA, a Bachelor of Science in Business Administration, and a data analytics certification. His work focuses on breaking scientific developments, with an emphasis on emerging biology, cognitive neuroscience, and archaeological discoveries.