Researchers at the Swiss institutes of ETH Zurich and Paul Scherrer Institute (PSI) in Villigen have produced an intense beam of cold atoms that they plan to use to test Einstein’s theory of gravity. This cold beam consists of muonium, a second-generation antiparticle, and the researchers want to test its interaction with gravity to know if another force of nature also exists that we haven’t spotted yet. 

The matter we see around us is made up of protons, neutrons, and electrons, which scientists call the first generation of particles. The other two generations of particles are heavier than the first-generation particles but also unstable and rapidly decay into first-generation particles. 

A muon is the heavier cousin of an electron from the second generation of particles. Researchers at PSI have successfully generated muons and their antiparticles using a particle accelerator. When such an antimuon combines with an electron, a neutral muonium atom is formed. Together with researchers at ETH Zurich, the scientists want to measure how the muonium atom falls under gravity. 

Gravity on second-generation particles

From the times of Galileo, through Newton and then Einstein, physicists have confirmed the universality of free fall. This equivalence principle states that all bodies inside a gravitational field fall with the same acceleration, irrespective of their mass or internal structure. 

Einstein used this principle as a foundational pillar for this famous theory of relativity, but this has only been tested on matter and antimatter particles of the first generation. Measuring this on a muonium atom would be the first instance of testing it on a second-generation particle. 

Muonium is well suited for this experiment because it is electrically neutral. In comparison, a charged particle can be impacted by stray magnetic fields and mask the effect of the weak force of gravity. 

How muonium beam helps

A major hurdle in performing such an experiment has been the quick decay of muonium. In addition to their rapid decay in just 2.2 microseconds, muonium produced in previous attempts also traveled at different speeds, making it difficult to conduct experiments with them. 

PSI researchers used a quantum fluid to generate a steady flow of muonium atoms. “We used superfluid helium that was cooled to near absolute zero at minus 273 degrees Celsius,” explained Jesse Zhang, researcher at PSI in a press release. “Superfluid helium is a so-called quantum liquid in which the individual helium atoms lose their identity and do not like impurities inside.”

Antimouns generated in the PSI’s particle accelerator were then shot into the quantum liquid, where they meet free electrons and form the muonium atom. A positive chemical potential formed during this reaction kicks the muonium atom to the surface, where the chemical potential is converted to kinetic energy, shooting it vertically out of the liquid. 

The researchers now plan to build an interferometer that will use the wave properties of the muonium atom to create an interference pattern capable of detecting the impact of gravity on the muonium. The device might take two to three years to build, but when ready, it will answer an important question that has long been pending: does gravity act differently on exotic matter? 

If gravity does indeed act differently, it would point to the presence of a fifth force of nature. For now, the team is focused on determining if the equivalence principle applies to the second generation of particles. 

The research findings were published in the journal Nature Physics.

The Ministry of Science and Information and Communications Technology (MSIT) and the Korea Institute of Science and Technology Information (KISTI) have announced that the next-generation national supercomputer will be launched by December this year.

Dubbed Supercomputer No.6, the machine will be equipped with 8,496 graphics processing units (GPUs) and boast a 614 petaflops performance, likely pushing it into the Top 10 supercomputers in the world. 

Supercomputers are extremely fast and large computers that can carry out extremely complex mathematics to solve problems of engineering and science that regular computers cannot handle. From energy exploration to weather forecasting, space research to drug discovery, supercomputers are tasked with carrying out simulations that help us better understand these fields and help scientists make discoveries. 

Countries typically built these large-scale computers at their national institutes to make scientific breakthroughs and attain economic leadership, while also deploying them for national security measures. 

The world’s top supercomputers are listed in the TOP500, with the latest edition listing China’s LineShine and ending US dominance at the top of the list. South Korea has 15 supercomputers on the list, with KISTI’s Supercomputer No. 5 occupying the 109th spot. KISTI and MSIT aim to break into the top 10, with Supercomputer No. 6 coming this December. 

Supercomputer No.6

KISTI’s Supercomputer No. 6 is built around NVIDIA’s GraceHopper 200 chips that integrate the central processing units (CPUs) and GPU units. The upcoming unit will feature 8,496 GPUs and 9,936 CPUs, 205 petabytes (PB) of onboard storage, and networking speeds that exceed 400 Gbps. 

Theoretically, Supercomputer No. 6’s computing performance is 614 petaflops, which is a huge leap when compared to its predecessor, Supercomputer No. 5, “Nurion, unveiled in 2017 with computing performance of 25.7 petaflops. Apart from a 24x increase in theoretical computing performance, the successor supercomputer will also get a 10x increase in storage and 4x faster networking speed. 

MSIT and KISTI signed an agreement with Hewlett-Packard Enterprise for system installation last year. Post-installation inspections began last month, and performance and stability testing is underway as South Korea looks for a December launch. 

Once operational, the supercomputer will enable access to massive computing resources for researchers engaged in computational science, data simulation, and AI-based scientific research. Plans include redistributing the resources across three programs: National Strategy (30 percent), R&D Innovation (55 percent), and Industrial Innovation (15 percent). 

Not smooth sailing

The announcement of the new supercomputer and its likely availability in the near term is great news for researchers. However, the acquisition was not this smooth sailing. Soon after the Supercomputer No. 5 was introduced in 2018, South Korean researchers began looking for its successor as early as 2021. 

However, the boom in generative AI, which has matured with ChatGPT and Claude, has now caused a huge surge in demand for GPUs. As prices for GPUs skyrocketed, South Korea couldn’t secure the chips at budgeted prices and had to spend 448.3 billion won (~US $334.9 million), a 53 percent jump over its initial budget of 292.9 billion won (~ US$218.8 million) to make the supercomputer a reality. 

“Supercomputer No. 6 is core infrastructure that will drive a major leap in scientific and technological research productivity in the AI era,” said Kim Sung-soo, Director General of the R&D Policy Bureau at the Ministry of Science and ICT in a press release. 

“We expect it to generate tangible outcomes that contribute to securing national strategic technologies, including K-Moonshot and the 7 Major SEEDs, as well as research innovation across industry, academia, and research institutes.”

Researchers at the University of Basel, Switzerland and Technical University of Munich, have developed a new approach that reveals the motion of electrons in the Wigner crystal, one of the most elusive states of matter. The team was able to access properties of the crystal in its fragile quantum state using light. 

First predicted nearly a century ago, the Wigner crystal is a solid phase of electrons that forms a organized crystal-like lattice structure at low densities. When moving in an inert, neutralizing background, a gas of electrons tend to crystallize at low densities as their potential energy is more dominant than their kinetic energy. 

Depending on the number of dimensions, the electrons are spread in, they can either form a crystal lattice in 3D, a triangular lattice when in two dimensions or an evenly space latticed when in a single dimension, as the electron cloud looks to minimize its potential energy. Physicist Eugene Winger predicted this in 1934 and has fascinated scientists since because it does not arise from an internal structure from the host material. 

While these crystals have been observed extensively, little was known about their internal behavior, their movements, interactions or responses to external disturbances. So, a team of researchers led by Tomasz Smoleński, assistant professor at the University of Basel, probed the crystal using light. 

Hidden quantum behaviour

The research team cooled a single layer of tungsten diselenide to temperatures just above absolute zero and illuminated it using light. 

“Our measurements show that light can do more than simply detect the presence of this exotic state—it can reveal how the state behaves internally,” explained Lujun Wang, who carried out the experiments at the University of Basel. 

Their work showed that the optical signatures were influenced by the strength of the interactions among the electrons, which is useful in exploring other systems which have multiple interacting particles. 

To make sense of their find, the researchers also needed a strong theory of what was happening inside the Wigner crystal. So, the team collaborated with Michael Knap, a professor of collective quantum dynamics at the Technical University of Munich (TUM) to understand what was happening. 

New window for other materials

Knap and his team came up with the theory that the incident light generated excitons which interacted with the orderly arrangement of electrons in the Wigner crystal and resulted in the formation of hybrid quasiparticles called polarons. These polarons served as optical probes for the crystal and its collective dynamics.

“What is particularly exciting is that these signals carry information not only about how the electrons are arranged, but also about their quantum dynamics,” explained Fabian Pichler, a PhD student at TUM and member of Knap’s research team. “This allows us to connect the experimental observations directly to the underlying many-body physics.”

The study demonstrates that atomically thin materials are promising platform for viewing collective motion of electrons in ordered quantum states. This opens up possibilities of investigating other materials and understanding its internal dynamics even if it may have strongly correlated matter. 

The research findings were published in the journal Nature Physics. 

Engineers at Boeing demonstrated a key quantum protocol during ground testing of the payload for the Q4S mission, ahead of its launch scheduled in 2027. Boeing’s self-funded Q4S missions are critical in realizing a space-based quantum network in the future. 

The recent growth in interest for quantum computing and sensors has also pushed demand for quantum networks, where information can be shared with high security and reliability. For any network to work, information needs to be routed efficiently. 

While this has been successfully done for quantum networks using fiber-optic cables, transmission losses become significantly higher as the networks scale from regional to national scales. For data transmission over hundreds of miles, free-space optical channels are much more efficient than fiber-optic cables, prompting the need for a space-based quantum network.

Scientists are therefore working to develop these networks, and Boeing’s Q4S mission is one such project. 

What is Q4S mission? 

Boeing is making a major move towards developing a quantum space network through its Q4S mission. 

“Quantum networking has the potential to transform how information is shared, timed and protected across global systems, but only if it can work outside the lab, under real mission constraints,” said Lane Ballard, Boeing chief technology officer, in a statement. “Q4S is about taking an important quantum capability and proving it on mission-ready hardware.”

As part of the project, the mission will spend a year in orbit to test quantum networking hardware in the harsh environment of space. During these tests, the mission will demonstrate entanglement swapping, the foundational mechanism that enables quantum links to extend beyond point-to-point connections. 

What is entanglement swapping? 

Quantum entanglement swapping relies on quantum teleportation, where a quantum state of a particle can be transferred to another without physically moving the particle. In entanglement swapping, teleportation occurs between entangled photon pairs, resulting in a shared state between the particles, even though they have never interacted. 

Quantum entanglement swapping is the basis for quantum repeaters, which are crucial for scaling quantum networks. For Boeing to build a scalable quantum network, it needs to first demonstrate entanglement swapping between photons, without loss or degradation of quantum data. 

Demonstrating this in space will be challenging, since quantum states are delicate and entanglement can be disrupted by factors such as environmental temperature and radiation. 

“One of the hardest parts of quantum networking is maintaining strong performance while working within the size, weight and power limits of a spacecraft,” added Lowell in the statement. 

In their recent tests, Boeing engineers demonstrated quantum entanglement swapping in a space-qualified Q4S payload ahead of its launch to orbit. The results are comparable to peer-reviewed experiements, operating within the strict Size, Weight, and Power (SWaP) constraints of a compact satellite. 

“These test results show that we can produce high-fidelity swaps on a payload engineered for space, not just for a controlled lab bench,” concluded Lowell. “That is a meaningful step toward practical quantum networks.”

The Q4S mission is scheduled for launch in 2027. Following the one year data gathering in orbit, Boeing plans to share its technical results for peer-review. 

Helios, a US-based quantum computer, demonstrated 99.9975% fidelity in one-qubit operations, while maintaining 99.921% for two-qubit operations. This is the highest fidelity for any commercial quantum computer in the industry, paving the way for a future with fault-tolerant quantum computers. 

Considered to be the next frontier of computing, the race to build reliable quantum computers is on. Research institutes and national laboratories in countries like the US, UK and China are engaged in building the necessary support for quantum computer startups to build the future of computing. 

The superior computing capacities of quantum computers arise from quantum bits or qubits, which can store multiple values between 0 and 1 at once. However, the same qubits are also easily disturbed, introducing errors into computations.

Scientists are therefore working to develop fault-tolerant computers that deliver high fidelity, i.e., a measure of how close the quantum operation is to the value of the expected operation. 

Helios’ highest fidelity

Quantinuum’s Helios is a 98-qubit quantum computer with 50 logical qubits. Built using trapped-ion qubits, the system also integrates photonics, allowing data transfer at the speed of light through the microscopic optical channels. 

This system design has dual benefits. It helps reduce risks to quantum computing data while significantly decreasing its power consumption. Helios’ power consumption is as little as 40 kW, even though it is equipped with the world’s fastest GPUs. 

In a recent paper, Quantinuum confirmed record fidelity for its one-qubit and two-qubit operations, reaching a record of sorts when it comes to two-qubit fidelity in the quantum computing industry. Helios is the company’s most reliable quantum computer to date and is available for commercial usage as a cloud-based service. 

Yet, Quantinuum has a long way to go before quantum computers like Helios and its successors become mainstream, and it is working with the Sandia National Laboratories (SNL) to develop fault-tolerant computers. 

Role of SNL

As a premier engineering laboratory in the US, SNL has been tasked with assessing opportunities and threats for technologies such as quantum computing. For over two decades, the national laboratory has leveraged its expertise and engineering capacities to build and share quantum devices on various platforms. 

SNL’s partnership with Quantinuum too is part of a Cooperative Research and Development Agreement, which was formed after Sandia researchers developed technologies in integrated photonics for trapped-ion quantum computers. 

Although Quantinuum is headquartered in Colorado, its research and development campus is in New Mexico, near SNL. The National Laboratory continues to help Quantinuum design and test new components that will be incorporated into future versions of the quantum computer. 

For instance, SNL researchers developed a new benchmarking methodology that can measure the performance of mid-circuit measurements, non-destructive readout operations that help in correcting quantum computing errors. 

“We evaluate every aspect of quantum computer performance with our commercial partners to accelerate the advent of quantum supercomputing,” said Robin Blume-Kohout, a researcher at SNL who was involved in the work.

By working with different companies and helping them solve issues will help quantum computers tackle unsolved scientific problems, Blume-Kohout added. 

The research findings were published in Nature.  

US-based fusion energy company Helion has received the regulatory clearances to build the world’s first fusion energy power plant. The company has received a Radioactive Materials License (RML) and a Radioactive Air Emissions License (RAEL) from the Washington Department of Health (DOH), clearing the way to begin construction of the generator building at the power plant site. 

As the world looks for newer ways to meet it energy demands without emitting carbon, fusion energy seems to be the most likely option. Using the chemical reaction that occurs on the Sun, fusion energy can potentially generate large amounts of energy from simpler atoms like hydrogen and its isotopes. 

Unlike its counterpart, nuclear fission, fusion energy does not produce large amounts of radioactive waste that need to be stored safely. Moreover, unlike renewables like wind and solar, fusion energy plants can work on demand, meeting energy requirements as they arise, without the investments required in energy storage too. 

Commercializing nuclear fusion

For all its benefits, nuclear fusion is still not a commercially available technology because the fusion reactors have not been able to generate more energy than they consume. Washington-state-based Helion Energy, though, is confident that it can achieve this fairly soon. 

While it has not yet published any peer-reviewed papers demonstrating how its fusion reactor works, the company is proceeding to build a fusion reactor that it will deploy commercially. It also has an agreement in place with Microsoft to supply 50 MW of power to a data center from its fusion reactor by 2028. 

The facility dubbed Orion is under construction in Malaga, Washington state and recently became the first such facility in the world to secure regulatory licenses to construct the nuclear plant. So far, the assembly and office building of the plant were completed but the recent grant of licenses from the DOH allows Helion to begin constructing the reactor as well. 

Why is NRC not involved? 

As a nuclear energy company, Helion should ideally be seeking approval from the US Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC). However, the NRC regulates nuclear fusion under the byproduct material framework, putting it in the same category for approvals as particle accelerators and hospitals, instead of nuclear reactors. 

This is not just a distinction made by the NRC but one also ratified by the US Congress in the ADVANCE Act of 2024, and it shows that nuclear fusion has a very different safety profile from fission and hence its path to deployment is also different. 

The issuance of the RML and RAEL licenses by the Washington DOH is a major milestone for Helion as it confirms that it has facilities, personnel, and safety programs that meet the safety standards for a fusion facility at the Malaga site. 

“We are extremely proud to be granted these licenses from the Washington DOH, making us the first company in the world with the regulatory approvals in place for fusion power plant operations,” said David Kirtley, CEO of Helion Energy, in a press release shared with Interesting Engineering.

“We have a long history of working with the DOH to license our previous fusion activities. Today’s announcement represents the rigor of that work and opens the door for practical, commercial, safe fusion power.”

In addition to the approvals needed to build its reactor, Helion has also secured a transmission interconnection agreement with Chelan County Public Utility District that will enable energy generated from its fusion power plant to be supplied to the grid, a global first as well. 

The question now is whether Helion will be able to meet its deadline to power Microsoft’s data center by 2028 from its fusion power plant.

Origin Wukong, China’s independently developed series of superconducting quantum computers, has completed more than 1 million computing tasks, according to a statement from the Anhui Provincial Key Laboratory of Quantum Computing Chips and the Anhui Quantum Computing Engineering Research Center in Hefei. The milestone is special as it also demonstrates the post-quantum cryptography (PQC) protection framework, which will be a must for quantum computers of the future. 

As quantum computers move from the laboratory to real-world applications, there is a major fear of their impact on encryption systems. It is well known that quantum computers can rapidly solve computations that the fastest supercomputers might take decades to complete.  

Modern-day encryption systems have relied on mathematical problems that are difficult for classical computers to compute quickly. However, the arrival of commercial quantum computers will crash encryption protections if they are not upgraded. This is why PQC protection frameworks need to be rapidly developed and deployed before quantum computing becomes mainstream. 

Origin Wukong’s feat

Powered by superconducting qubits, the Origin Wukong has been operational for over two years and has received more than 49 million visits from over 192 countries globally. During this time, it has completed over 1 million quantum computing tasks. While doing so, it has also demonstrated the effectiveness of its safety infrastructure. 

Back in April 2024, Origin Wukong integrated Origin Rock, China’s first PQC protection framework.  A software cryptographic model, it was China’s first attempt to build an anti-quantum-attack shield that can resist attacks from both quantum and classical computers. 

According to the statement, Origin Rock is an early-stage ‘spear and shield’ model that combines strong quantum computing services with defensive security measures, creating a quantum computing service system capable of performing both tasks. 

China has also deployed this PQC protection framework at other enterprises and public institutions in the country. 

PQC ready now

The US National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) has previously estimated that quantum computers could disrupt existing cryptographic systems within the next 5-10 years. However, the US National Security Agency has urged federal agencies to switch to PQC as early as possible, as it has become an operational requirement and is not something that can be decided in the future.

Earlier this year, the NIST announced that nine candidates had qualified for the third round of evaluation for post-quantum digital signature algorithms. It has also previously approved three PQC cryptographic standards. 

China is reportedly working to develop its own national standards for PQC within the next three years, and lessons from Origin Wukong will play a major role in shaping them. “I personally think that the next three-to-five-year period is potentially one of explosive growth for post-quantum cryptography industry migration,” said Wang Xiaoyun, a professor at Tsinghua University’s Institute for Advanced Study. 

 Origin Wukong will also help advance scalable programmable computing, the researchers associated with the project told Global Times. It is one of the areas where the Chinese government is expected to nurture future industries alongside embodied artificial intelligence, brain-computer interfaces, energy, and 6G technologies, the annual Government Work Report said. 

China’s list of attractions could soon include the ‘Great Wall’ of solar panels after the Asian giant has turned the dunes of the Kubuqi Desert in Inner Mongolia into a 250-mile (400 km) strip of clean-energy infrastructure. Sitting among the panels is a city-sized image of a galloping horse, which is a Guinness World Record for the largest image ever made out of solar panels.

Even as the US struggles to decide on a clear policy to build clean energy infrastructure or burn more fossil fuels in the long run, China has taken an aggressive stance to secure its energy needs by building a mix of nuclear and renewable power plants. 

Interesting Engineering has previously reported how China is building nuclear energy facilities at scale and some of the biggest solar power plants in the world. 

Now, images from the Operational Land Imager on Landsat 8 and Landsat 9, captured over seven years apart, show how aggressively China has built a large array of solar panels that is not only visible from space but also plans to power the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei region with 40 billion kiloWatt-hours (kWh) of clean energy by the end of this decade. 

100 GW solar power capacity

China’s ambitious plan is to build 100 gigawatts of solar energy capacity in the region through a 250-mile-long solar panel corridor that extends up to three miles wide. As of 2024, only 5.4 GW was considered completed, with 2 GW of power coming online through the Three Gorges Kubuqi base. 

While this might seem low, estimates suggest that 7 GW of installed capacity is expected to come online this year. The Three Gorges Kubuqi base alone is designed to deliver 16 GW of output, with a mix of solar and wind installations of 8 GW and 4 GW, respectively.

Interestingly, the remaining 4 GW of capacity comes from coal, which is expected to help keep the grid stable when renewable output is inconsistent.

One of the features of the completed installation so far is the Junma Solar Power Station, which features the galloping horse array. While this has earned the site a Guinness World Record, it does a bigger job of generating 2 billion kWh of energy a year. 

Not just for power

While the power generation from the upcoming facility will be massive, the panels are designed to do more than just that. Mounted higher than usual, these solar panels also serve as windbreaks and slow the wind blowing through these areas. The shade of the panels cuts evaporation and gives a chance for grass and crops to grow in the region. 

Satellite images have also confirmed greening of the region, where panels have been installed for a while. Science is still figuring out if such greening will also change rainfall patterns in the region, turning the desert into more than a grassland in the future. 

However, the main challenge for the project is sending all this generated energy to cities 800 miles (~1300 km) away. While this has been a bottleneck for grid operators in the US as well, the Chinese seem to be better at resolving it as transmission lines have already begun connecting the Inner Mongolia region with cities in the south and the east. 

Engineers at the Titan-2 Holding, the construction company tasked with building the third unit at Leningrad Nuclear Power Plant in Russia, recently oversaw the installation of a 120-tonne (132 U.S. tons) core catcher in the reactor containment building. This construction is part of phase II of the Leningrad plant, one of the largest nuclear facilities in Russia. 

With an eye on climate goals, countries are turning back to nuclear energy to meet their energy demands without releasing carbon into the atmosphere. While this is a major shift for other countries, for Russia, it is just a matter of upgrading its nuclear facilities with more powerful home-built reactors. 

The Leningrad Nuclear Power Plant, for instance, is one of the largest power facilities in Russia, providing about 55 percent of the electricity demand in the city of St. Petersburg and the Leningrad region at large. With an installed capacity of 4,400 MWe, the nuclear power plant singlehandedly meets 30 percent of the electricity demand of northwest Russia. 

After over five decades of operation, the original nuclear reactors have been shut down, and their replacement is being built as Phase II of the Leningrad Power Plant. 

Construction in Phase II

The Leningrad Nuclear Power Plant consisted of four RBMK units, one of the earliest Generation II reactors, some of which are still operational elsewhere. At Leningrad, the first two units were shut down in 2018 and 2020, after 45 years of operation each. 

In Phase II, Russia is building VVER-1200 reactors with an estimated service life of 60 years, with a possibility of an extension of another 20 years. This will see the reactors in operation, well beyond the 2080s. The first two units at Leningrad Phase II (Leningrad II-1 and II-2) are commonly known as Units 5 and 6, while the other two units, Leningrad II-3 and II-4, are referred to as Units 7 and 8. 

While Units 3 and 4 at the Leningrad Nuclear Power Plant remain operational, work to replace them has already begun, with concrete pouring for Units 7 and 8 scheduled to start in March 2024 and March 2025, respectively. The core catcher for Unit 7 (Leningrad II-3) was completed recently. 

What is the core catcher? 

Made out of thermally resistant steel, the core catcher is a safety device that springs into action in the event of an emergency. In a situation where the core has melted, the core catcher is designed to hold the radioactive material within the containment of the reactor and not let it spill out. 

Engineers at Titan-2 oversaw the installation of the core catcher into a concrete shaft of the reactor containment building for Unit 7. 

“The likelihood that this passive safety system will ever be truly needed is extremely low,” said Alexey Mochalov, Deputy Chief Engineer for the Construction of New Power Units at Leningrad. 

“All the decisions made in the design of domestic power units with VVER-1200 reactors, the high-quality construction, installation, and commissioning work, as well as the highly qualified and responsible personnel of the nuclear power plant, will leave the trap in standby mode for the entire design life of the unit.”

The construction will now proceed to install the thermal insulation, support and thrust trusses, and other equipment and measuring channels to enable reactor vessel assembly as early as next year. 

Ferveret, a startup from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), is using cooling technology deployed in nuclear reactors to solve challenges faced by data centers today. The waterless cooling technology can also help establish data centers in areas where water is scarce while abundant solar energy powers the chips and cooling infrastructure. 

The recent surge in artificial intelligence (AI) applications has been made possible by high-performance computing chips from companies like NVIDIA. When AI needs to be deployed at scale, companies need to house many chips capable of processing information quickly enough. To save costs, they hire computing power from private data centers that buy and deploy the high-performance chips and rent them out over the long term. 

As more and more companies deploy AI in their workflows, the demand for data centers has shot up. With new data centers, energy demand is also growing. Estimates suggest that by the end of the decade, up to 17 percent of the US electricity usage will be consumed by data centers. The power consumption is not just for high-performance chips but also for cooling them. 

Liquid cooling chips

When data centers were first set up, chips were cooled using air. As their computing capacities increased, they began to generate more heat, which needed better cooling approaches. 

Liquids are better than air at removing heat from a chip. Their performance is even better when the heat is used to bring about a phase change. At the liquid’s boiling point, it can extract more heat from the chip without increasing the temperature difference between the liquid and the chip. 

The newest data centers use an immersion cooling approach in which the entire server rack is immersed in the cooling liquid to maximize heat transfer. However, with AI adding more computational power to the server pack, heat generation has increased, necessitating newer cooling solutions. 

Nuclear reactor-inspired tech

MIT spin-off Ferveret is looking to deploy cooling technology used in nuclear reactors and adapt it for data center use. Called subcooled boiling, it uses a liquid with a low boiling point, which produces smaller bubbles than immersion cooling approaches. 

While immersion cooling has to contend with issues such as capturing the bubbles and reliquefying them under constrained pressure and temperature conditions, in Ferveret’s approach, the bubbles recondense quickly into the surrounding liquid. 

In a recent study, Ferveret found that its cooling solution resulted in up to 15 percent improvement in computational power efficiency compared to state-of-the-art immersive cooling techniques. This, combined with Fereveret’s proprietary power control system, allows data centers to extract 35 percent more tokens from the AI models without any increase in power usage. 

Ferveret’s Adaptive Phase Cooling (APC) system is deployed in small boxes, each capable of housing one server. This modular approach allows its deploy and maintain its system much more easily. 

“The physics enable us to get to form factors that weren’t possible in the past,” said Reza Azizian, co-founder at Ferveret, in a press release. “Most immersion cooling solutions are large tanks that people submerge the servers in. We have a smaller, modular rack-mounted solution that makes it adaptable to the current infrastructure, so it’s easier for people to deploy our technology.”

The waterless cooling approach is also beneficial in areas where water is scarce, but sunlight is plentiful. Setting up solar power plants in these areas is simple, but with low water, data centers could not be cooled down. 

“This technology can help deploy data centers in regions where normally you wouldn’t have the resources to do so, including Africa, the Middle East, and of course parts of America. It’s a huge unlock,” added Matteo Bucci, associate professor at the Department of Nuclear Science and Engineering and also Ferveret co-founder. 

Scientists at the Argonne National Laboratory (ANL) in the US found an elusive type of vibration, called the Higgs mode, in a semiconductor material for the first time. The collective movement of atoms resulted in a change in the symmetry of the crystal, which can be tuned to optimize the material’s properties. 

If you recall science taught at school, you will remember that in gases molecules are loosely packed and are in motion, whereas in solids, molecules are densely packed and rigid, which gives them a defined shape. Yet, even within solids, atoms are in a constant motion. Much of this is vibrational motion, which is random and uncoordinated. 

Scientists know that certain inputs can turn this random motion into coordinated, in-sync movement. Collectively, these vibrations make a sound, referred to as phonons. By tuning phonons, scientists have also found a way to influence the structure and behavior of materials. 

Finding the Higgs mode

Researchers at ANL were using light to change the phonon activity in a semiconductor material called metal halide perovskites. These materials are crucial as we look to build the next generation of solar cells, advanced sensors and quantum technologies. 

During one of their experiments, where the scientists exposed a two-dimensional perovskite crystal to ultrafast laser pulses, they noticed a complex and elusive type of vibration that modulated the symmetry of the crystal itself. This is called Higgs mode. 

Throughout history, researchers have found mathematical analogs of Higgs mode in various materials. The Higgs boson in particle physics, or that in superconductivity, which allows electricity to flow through a material with no resistance. 

The Higgs mode is an oscillation in a system to a degree where it shows some symmetry or order. It typically emerges when a system undergoes a phase transition due to a phenomenon known as spontaneous symmetry breaking. 

On this occasion, ANL researchers observed Higgs mode for the first time in a semiconductor material. 

Higgs mode in semiconductor material

The researchers were working with butylammonium lead iodide, a metal halide perovskite which is used to make single-layer semiconducting crystals. Finding its Higgs mode allowed researchers to tune their band gaps, making them better suited for solar cell applications. 

Band gaps of a semiconductor material determine which light frequencies it can absorb to make electricity in a solar cell and which ones they scatter. In their experiments, when the researchers exposed the semiconductor to ultrafast laser pulses, small groups of atoms in it began to oscillate. 

The interactions between the electrons of these oscillating atoms changed their angles too. Interestingly, this also changed the bandgap of the material. 

“We found that the bandgap increased and decreased periodically and rapidly,” said Richard Schaller, a scientist at ANL who was involved in the work. ​“Essentially, the color of the sample oscillated as it rocked through different crystal symmetries — turning redder and then bluer, over and over.”

The researchers also found that this Higgs mode steered the crystal toward a phase that cannot be achieved by heating it. This demonstrates that light-based excitation of material is different from heat-based excitation, thereby offering a new way to explore material phases and properties. 

“If we can use light to control structural and electronic changes in materials on ultrafast time scales they might find use as optical switches in modern microelectronics and quantum technologies,” added Ayushi Shukla, postdoctoral researcher at ANL in a press release. ​

“Also, stabilizing novel, high-symmetry phases with low band gaps could open exciting opportunities for photovoltaic applications.”

The research findings were published in Nature Materials. 

Researchers at the John Hopkins Applied Physics Laboratory (APL) teamed up with their counterparts at John Hopkins University to develop a comprehensive framework to model quantum noise for superconducting quantum processors. This is expected to help develop better error correction strategies leading to fault tolerant quantum computers in the future. 

Quantum computing is the next big leap in computing that researchers are keen to develop thanks to its exponentially fast computational speeds. Even the world’s fastest supercomputers fall exceedingly short when compared to a quantum computer with just a few hundred qubits. 

Yet, quantum computers aren’t being deployed to solve real-world problems. The reason is the error accumulation in quantum computation. Quantum bits or qubits are naturally prone to noise, where a change in temperature, electric or magnetic field can lead to the accumulation of errors, prompting the need to build robust error correction mechanisms. 

Modeling noise in quantum computers

A research team led by Gregory Quiroz, a physicist at APL decided to study quantum noise in real operating environments for multi-qubit quantum computers. So, they accessed a quantum cloud consisting of 39 qubits across seven superconducting devices. 

The researchers were keen to study transmons, a specific type of superconducting qubit which is known for its reduced sensitivity to noise from electric fields. Working with a cloud-based system also presented another challenge since the researchers did not have low-level access to the hardware. 

However Quiroz noted that the challenge was much like a real world simulation, where users do not have low-level access to hardware in proprietary systems either. Instead of attempting to study noise effects on a single operation in detail, the researchers ran repeated computations on the quantum cloud to accumulate errors. 

By looking into how errors accumulated and how deviant the answers were from those expected, the researchers were able to get valuable insights into how the physical system was working. 

Building a comprehensive model

Attempts at studying errors in quantum computation have traditionally worked with only one type of error, either coherent or incoherent. The latter are errors where information stored on qubits is lost and not much can be done about them. 

However, the coherent ones are caused by flaws in the hardware and are therefore fixable. Interestingly, APL’s approach of working with a quantum cloud allowed them to study both incoherent and coherent errors in the same framework. 

We were able to put a wide variety of errors together into one model, which is simple in terms of parameters but also comprehensive in the types of phenomena it can describe — even predicting the performance of small quantum algorithms,” added Yasuo Oda, postdoctoral researcher, who worked with Quiroz on the model. “That’s our biggest contribution.”

“Now that we have this low-weight noise model, we have the opportunity to apply it across all levels of the quantum computing stack, from hardware design to algorithm design to error correction,” said Quiroz in a press release. “The information we can get from the model can inform every level of the quantum computing stack.”

The research findings were published in the journal PRX Quantum.

Scientists at the Ames National Laboratory in the U.S. have developed a systematic path to the discovery of new approaches to building permanent magnets without relying on rare-earth elements. The approach combines physics-based modeling and high-throughput simulations with reasoning-based artificial intelligence (AI) tools to guide the discovery process even before materials are made in the laboratory. 

Permanent magnets are a crucial part of our everyday lives. From aiding data storage to helping us drive electric vehicles (EVs) to enabling high-quality medical imaging, permanent magnets are used everywhere. 

High-performance permanent magnets made with rare-earth elements are used in defense applications and energy generation. However, the U.S. is highly dependent on other countries to refine its rare earth elements, which increases costs and security risks. Scientists at the Ames National Laboratory have therefore been tasked with developing permanent magnets that do not use rare-earth elements. 

AI, AI everywhere

At a time when AI adoption is soaring and no organization wants to remain behind, another story about AI workflows is not a major surprise. However, for an AI model to perform perfectly, it must be trained on the right data. 

For a general use case, an AI model can be trained on general data. However, for an AI that needs to excel in materials science, a research team led by Prashant Singh, a scientist at Ames, ensured that models were trained on experimentally measured and scientifically calculated material properties. Only this can ensure that the predictions the AI model is making are grounded in real-world behavior. 

“Understanding the physics of materials is important to include in AI frameworks when you are trying to design new materials. If you just use the data to train your models, you are going to get only the predictions within the range of information you have,” said Singh in a press release. 

“But once you understand the physics of what controls specific properties, then you and your agentic tools or AI frameworks can search arbitrary material space,” added Singh. 

Addressing the full pipeline

The advantage of using such an AI-based approach is that it uses a material’s atomic structure and electronic behavior to determine its properties. Magnetization strength, resistance to demagnetization, energy storage capacity, and the permanent magnet’s behavior at high temperatures are major parameters that determine its usefulness. 

Using an AI model that accounts for this allows researchers to identify the most promising material candidates and arrive at likely outcomes through computations rather than real-world iterations. 

“Ames Lab’s strength comes from its deep expertise and a long history of data in the magnet space that no other institution has,” elaborated Singh in the press release. 

“In any material design problem, you need to know how combining two elements will change their performance before you ever run an experiment. We have been building both theoretical and analytical tools to answer that question, and we are now bringing AI into that process to make it faster and broader in scope.”

However, the researchers did not just stop there. The AI tools also take into account the availability and cost of the material. Since the frailty of supply chains has been repeatedly exposed in the past decade, the AI models also factor in these conditions during the discovery process itself to ensure that the material developed is practically possible and can be scaled. 

In doing so, the researchers have addressed the complete pipeline from discovery to industrial availability as the U.S. looks to reduce its dependence on other countries for critical components. 

The research findings were published in the journal Materials Science and Engineering.